Article1 October 2001free access Direct interaction between the Arabidopsis disease resistance signaling proteins, EDS1 and PAD4 Bart J. Feys Bart J. Feys The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Search for more papers by this author Lisa J. Moisan Lisa J. Moisan The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Search for more papers by this author Mari-Anne Newman Mari-Anne Newman The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Present address: Section for Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Biology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Jane E. Parker Corresponding Author Jane E. Parker The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Present address: Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Molecular Plant Pathology, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, D-50829 Cologne, Germany Search for more papers by this author Bart J. Feys Bart J. Feys The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Search for more papers by this author Lisa J. Moisan Lisa J. Moisan The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Search for more papers by this author Mari-Anne Newman Mari-Anne Newman The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Present address: Section for Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Biology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Jane E. Parker Corresponding Author Jane E. Parker The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK Present address: Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Molecular Plant Pathology, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, D-50829 Cologne, Germany Search for more papers by this author Author Information Bart J. Feys1, Lisa J. Moisan1, Mari-Anne Newman1,2 and Jane E. Parker 1,3 1The Sainsbury Laboratory, John Innes Centre, Colney, Norwich, NR4 7UH UK 2Present address: Section for Plant Pathology, Department of Plant Biology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871 Frederiksberg C, Denmark 3Present address: Max-Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Department of Molecular Plant Pathology, Carl-von-Linne-Weg 10, D-50829 Cologne, Germany *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2001)20:5400-5411https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/20.19.5400 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The Arabidopsis EDS1 and PAD4 genes encode lipase-like proteins that function in resistance (R) gene-mediated and basal plant disease resistance. Phenotypic analysis of eds1 and pad4 null mutants shows that EDS1 and PAD4 are required for resistance conditioned by the same spectrum of R genes but fulfil distinct roles within the defence pathway. EDS1 is essential for elaboration of the plant hypersensitive response, whereas EDS1 and PAD4 are both required for accumulation of the plant defence-potentiating molecule, salicylic acid. EDS1 is necessary for pathogen-induced PAD4 mRNA accumulation, whereas mutations in PAD4 or depletion of salicylic acid only partially compromise EDS1 expression. Yeast two-hybrid analysis reveals that EDS1 can dimerize and interact with PAD4. However, EDS1 dimerization is mediated by different domains to those involved in EDS1–PAD4 association. Co-immunoprecipitation experiments show that EDS1 and PAD4 proteins interact in healthy and pathogen-challenged plant cells. We propose two functions for EDS1. The first is required early in plant defence, independently of PAD4. The second recruits PAD4 in the amplification of defences, possibly by direct EDS1–PAD4 association. Introduction Plants have evolved complex recognition and response mechanisms to counter attack by pathogens. Disease occurs only when the pathogen is able to avoid early detection by the plant (Feys and Parker, 2000). One of the most strongly expressed forms of plant disease resistance is conferred by resistance (R) genes whose products confer recognition of pathogen avirulence (Avr) proteins (Martin, 1999). Their highly specific interaction occurs within or on the surface of plant cells and leads to the rapid induction of plant defences (Kjemtrup et al., 2000). R gene-mediated resistance is usually, although not invariably, associated with localized plant cell necrosis, known as the hypersensitive response (HR). Accompanying the HR are a number of early cellular changes within the plant, such as an oxidative burst producing reactive oxygen intermediates (ROI), accumulation of the signaling molecules, nitric oxide (NO) and salicylic acid (SA), and the transcriptional activation of defence-related genes (McDowell and Dangl, 2000). Data suggest that cooperation between NO, ROI and SA molecules contributes to establishment of the HR and to the potentiation of defence signals in surrounding plant tissues (Shirasu et al., 1997; Delledonne et al., 1998; Klessig et al., 2000). However, the precise nature of events determining plant-pathogen recognition and downstream signaling is not known. It is also unclear how localized plant resistance induces systemic immunity (systemic acquired resistance, SAR), a broad spectrum and long lasting resistance that occurs in uninoculated parts of the plant (McDowell and Dangl, 2000). Mutational analyses in the model plant, Arabidopsis, has led to the identification of genes required for R gene-mediated resistance or for SAR (Feys and Parker, 2000). The eds1 (enhanced disease susceptibility) mutation sup presses R gene-mediated resistance to the oomycete pathogen, Peronospora parasitica, conferred by RPP1 in accession Wassilewskija (Ws-0), RPP5 in accession Landsberg-erecta (Ler) (Parker et al., 1996), and by RPP2 and RPP4 in accession Columbia (Col-0) (Aarts et al., 1998). Mutations in EDS1 also abolish RPS4-mediated resistance present in all three accessions to the bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae expressing avrRps4 (Aarts et al., 1998). All of these R genes belong to a major R gene structural class encoding ‘TIR-NB-LRR’ proteins that have N-terminal (TIR) similarity to the intra cellular domains of human and Drosophila Toll receptors, a central nucleotide binding (NB) domain and C-terminal leucine-rich repeats (LRRs) (Parker et al., 1997; Botella et al., 1998; Gassmann et al., 1999). EDS1 is not required for resistance conferred by RPM1, RPS2 or RPS5, NB-LRR R genes that possess an N-terminal coiled coil (CC) motif and not a TIR domain (Aarts et al., 1998), pointing to the possibility that distinct resistance pathways are directed, at least in part, by particular R protein structural types. Analysis of RPS4-specified responses in wild-type and eds1 plants revealed that EDS1 operates upstream of SA-dependent defences (Falk et al., 1999). Moreover, eds1 plants are hypersusceptible to normally virulent strains of P.syringae and P.parasitica (a phenotype referred to as ‘enhanced disease susceptibility’, eds) (Parker et al., 1996; Aarts et al., 1998), suggesting defects in a basal resistance mechanism against virulent pathogens. The screen for suppressors of RPP5 resistance in accession Ler led to the isolation of one defective allele of PAD4 (phytoalexin deficient) (pad4-2; Jirage et al., 1999). PAD4 was first identified in a mutational screen for enhanced disease susceptibility to a virulent isolate of P.syringae pv. maculicola (Glazebrook et al., 1996) and was found to be required for resistance conferred by RPP2 and RPP4 to P.parasitica in Col-0 cotyledons (Glazebrook et al., 1997). The eds phenotype of pad4 was associated with reduced accumulation of the indole phytoalexin, camalexin and the signaling molecule, SA (Glazebrook et al., 1997; Zhou et al., 1998). Neither of these responses was affected in pad4 plants responding to P.syringae expressing avrRpt2, indicating that RPS2-specified resistance does not require PAD4 (Zhou et al., 1998). PAD4 was therefore placed as an important regulator of SA accumulation in the plant response to virulent P.syringae. How ever, its position in R gene-mediated resistance responses remained unclear. The isolation of pad4-2 as a suppressor of RPP5-mediated resistance in Ler as well as the requirement for PAD4 in RPP2 and RPP4 resistance in Col-0 shows that PAD4 participates in several EDS1-dependent responses. Both EDS1 and PAD4 encode lipase-like proteins (Falk et al., 1999; Jirage et al., 1999). Furthermore, the abundance of EDS1 and PAD4 mRNAs is upregulated by applications of SA, suggesting the operation of a positive feedback loop in the expression of both of these genes (Falk et al., 1999; Jirage et al., 1999). This raised the question of whether EDS1 and PAD4 functions are connected in plant defence. Here we show that EDS1 and PAD4 proteins interact specifically, both in a yeast two-hybrid assay and in plant cells, suggesting that physical association between these two proteins may contribute to their activities in disease resistance. By examining, for the first time, the phenotypes of null eds1 and pad4 mutants in the same genetic background we also establish that EDS1 and PAD4 are required for resistance conditioned by an identical spectrum of R genes. We demonstrate that both EDS1 and PAD4 positively regulate SA accumulation in an EDS1/PAD4-dependent R gene-mediated response and that EDS1 is additionally required for generation of the plant HR. Furthermore, we establish that EDS1 is necessary for the upregulation of PAD4 mRNA, whereas mutations in PAD4 or depletion of SA only partially compromise enhanced EDS1 expression. Our results are consistent with placement of EDS1 and PAD4 within a defence pathway that is engaged by TIR-NB-LRR-type R genes. In this signaling mechanism, we propose two functions for EDS1. One is positioned upstream of PAD4 and triggers early plant defences. The other recruits PAD4 to potentiate plant defences through the accumulation of SA and possibly other molecules. Results Suppression of RPP5-mediated resistance in eds1 and pad4 We examined the RPP5-mediated resistance phenotypes of wild-type Ler, null eds1-2 and pad4-2 mutant plants and Ler-NahG plants (expressing the SA-depleting enzyme, salicylate hydroxylase; Bowling et al., 1997) after inoculation with P.parasitica isolate Noco2. Two-week-old seedlings were sprayed with Noco2 conidia and infected leaves assessed up to 7 days after inoculation. As shown in Figure 1, Ler elaborated an HR at points of pathogen penetration that was visible microscopically after staining leaves with lactophenol Trypan Blue (TB) (Parker et al., 1993). Mycelium did not grow beyond these discrete patches of necrotic plant cells. In contrast, Noco2 colonization of eds1-2 plants was unrestricted and the mycelium rapidly ramified throughout the plant to produce abundant asexual spores on the leaf surface after 6 days (Figure 1). The phenotype of pad4-2 was strikingly different to that of eds1-2. Leaves exhibited trails of necrotic plant cells and permitted the emergence of occasional sporophores after 6–7 days. Lactophenol Trypan Blue staining revealed that pad4-2 produced an HR but the pathogen was able to grow beyond the initial infection site, giving rise to trails of dead plant cells at the plant-pathogen interface (Figure 1). Ler-NahG plants exhibited a similar trailing necrotic phenotype to pad4-2 in response to Noco2, although mycelial ingress was less extensive in leaves of NahG plants than in pad4-2 (Figure 1). Figure 1.RPP5 resistance phenotypes of wild-type Ler, eds1-2, pad4-2 and NahG leaves inoculated with P.parasitica isolate Noco2. Two-week-old seedlings were spray-inoculated with a suspension of P.parasitica conidia (5 × 104/ml) and incubated as described in Materials and methods. Whole leaves were photographed 6 days after inoculation. Trailing necrosis (tn) in pad4-2 and NahG is indicated by an arrow. Leaf tissue was stained with lactophenol Trypan Blue (TB) 5 days after inoculation to visualize pathogen mycelium (m) and necrotic plant cells (d). The TB-stained material, viewed under a light microscope, is shown at ×400 magnification. Download figure Download PowerPoint We concluded from these analyses that EDS1 and PAD4 have different functions in RPP5-mediated resistance. Whereas EDS1 is an indispensable component of the HR and is associated with early plant defences, PAD4 appears to exert a resistance strengthening or potentiating activity that is downstream or independent of HR development. Similarity between the phenotypes of pad4-2 and NahG leaves suggests that a major role of PAD4 is to promote SA accumulation in the RPP5-conditioned response. EDS1 and PAD4 interact specifically in a yeast two-hybrid assay In order to identify potential protein interactors with EDS1, the full-length EDS1 cDNA was fused to the LexA DNA-binding domain in the bait vector pLexA (pLex-EDS1). A Landsberg-erecta two-hybrid cDNA library derived from pathogen-challenged plant material was constructed in the pJG4-5 activation domain (AD) vector (see Materials and methods). The pLex-EDS1 bait was verified not to auto-activate the LEU2 and LacZ reporter genes and to move to the nucleus. After transformation of the two-hybrid library in yeast strain EGY191(p8op- LacZ/pLex-EDS1), 6 000 000 primary transformants were obtained and 60 000 000 yeast clones were screened for potential EDS1 interactors. The dominant class of interactor (in 11 isolates) was identified as PAD4. Only full-length PAD4 inserts were recovered from the screen. EDS1–PAD4 interaction was also tested in the reciprocal combination with PAD4 fused to the LexA domain and was found to be stronger than the original interaction (data not shown). EDS1 did not interact with the control bait protein Bicoid (Figure 2B), making it unlikely that EDS1 is a sticky protein associating non-specifically with PAD4. In addition, a separate two-hybrid screen using full-length PAD4 yielded 50 positive interactors, 37 of which encoded full-length EDS1 (data not shown). Figure 2.Interaction between EDS1 and PAD4 in a yeast two-hybrid assay. (A) Schematic representation of the domain structure of the Arabidopsis EDS1 and PAD4 proteins. The lipase domain (filled box) and EP (EDS1 and PAD4-defined) domain (hatched box) are indicated. The position of the eds1-1 (E466K) mutation is shown with an arrow. The EP domain lies between residues 405 and 554 (EDS1) and residues 332 and 457 (PAD4). (B) Two-hybrid interactions between EDS1 and PAD4. Full-length proteins or defined subdomains of EDS1 and PAD4 were tested for specific interactions under inducing (+GAL) or repressing conditions (+GLU). Combinations are shown with the first protein fused to the LexA domain and the second partner fused to the AD domain. Numbers refer to amino acid positions in the full-length protein. Positive interactions are defined by activation of the LacZ (shown) and LEU2 (same pattern as LacZ; data not shown) reporter genes. The interaction between p53 and SV40-T serves as a positive control for the assay. Download figure Download PowerPoint Comparison of the EDS1 and PAD4 protein sequences revealed a novel conserved domain in the C-terminus that we have named the EP domain (for EDS1 and PAD4-defined; Figure 2A), which is not present in other known proteins outside the plant kingdom. The only other Arabidopsis gene containing the EP domain is SAG101, of unknown function, which is expressed during plant senescence (He et al., 2001). Figure 3 shows a sequence alignment of the EP domain in EDS1, PAD4 and SAG101. Figure 3.Sequence alignment of the EP domain in EDS1, PAD4 and SAG101. Sequences of the Arabidopsis EDS1 and PAD4 proteins were aligned with SAG101, a senescence-associated gene of unknown function (He et al., 2001) across the EP domain. The position of the eds1-1 (E466K) mutation is indicated with an arrow. The alignment was generated using Clustal_W and shaded using BoxShade (see Materials and methods). Positions are relative to the full-length protein. The DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank accession No. for SAG101 is AAF78583. Download figure Download PowerPoint In order to define regions of EDS1 and PAD4 that are required for interaction, we tested combinations of different EDS1 and PAD4 subdomains in the yeast two-hybrid assay. A schematic diagram of the designated EDS1 and PAD4 domains is shown in Figure 2A. Western blot analysis was performed on all combinations to confirm stable expression of the fusion proteins (data not shown). We found that PAD4 interacted with full-length EDS1 but not with any EDS1 subdomain tested, as shown in Figure 2B. PAD4 association with EDS1 was through its N-terminal region, comprising the predicted lipase domain. In particular, the first 15 amino acids of PAD4 were indispensable for interaction with EDS1. We next tested whether EDS1 and PAD4 were each capable of dimerization. EDS1, but not PAD4, strongly interacted with itself, suggesting that EDS1 may function in both homomeric associations as well as in heteromeric complexes with PAD4. The C-terminus of EDS1 was sufficient for interaction with full-length EDS1 (Figure 2B), suggesting that EDS1 dimerization occurs through the C-terminal end. No interaction between full-length EDS1 and its N-terminal domain (amino acids 1–350) was observed (data not shown). The absence of PAD4 dimerization in the two-hybrid system indicates a degree of specificity in interactions between members of this class of lipase-like proteins. Previously, we isolated the eds1-1 mutant carrying a single amino acid substitution that changes a highly conserved glutamate at position 466 within the EP domain to an oppositely charged lysine residue (E466K in Figure 3). The eds1-1 mutant has a complete loss of function phenotype (Parker et al., 1996; Falk et al., 1999). Western blot analysis showed that fusions of EDS1 (E466K) to both the LexA and AD domain were stably expressed in yeast cells during two-hybrid interaction assays (data not shown). We assessed the effect of the E466K mutation on two-hybrid interactions and found that EDS1–PAD4 association was abolished, whereas it reduced, but did not abolish EDS1 dimerization (Figure 2B). Quantification of β-galactosidase activity (see Materials and methods) gave the following values for the interactions: EDS1 + EDS1, 107 ± 16 units; EDS1 (E466K) + EDS1(E466K), 17 ± 4 units. The contrasting effect of the E466K mutation on the EDS1–PAD4 and EDS1–EDS1 interactions provides further evidence that the mode of EDS1 association with PAD4 is different to that of EDS1 dimerization. In planta interaction between EDS1 and PAD4 In order to study protein interactions in plant cells, a null mutant pad4 line (pad4-5; see below) was stably transformed with wild-type PAD4 containing an N-terminal c-Myc epitope tag expressed from the native PAD4 promoter (Myc::PAD4). The c-Myc epitope did not interfere with PAD4 function, as several independent transgenic lines exhibited full resistance to P.parasitica isolate Noco2 (data not shown). In addition, we generated anti-EDS1 polyclonal antiserum (see Materials and methods). Both the anti-c-Myc antibody and the anti-EDS1 antiserum detected single protein bands of the expected size (69.6 kDa for Myc::PAD4, 71.5 kDa for EDS1) in total soluble extracts of the Myc::PAD4 transgenic line, but not in protein extracts from the pad4-5 or eds1-1 mutant, respectively (Figure 4A and B). Figure 4.In planta protein interaction between EDS1 and PAD4. (A) Co-immunoprecipitation of EDS1 and PAD4 in total plant protein extracts. Protein extracts were prepared from the transgenic pad4-5 (5× Myc::PAD4) line, indicated as Myc-PAD4, or from the pad4-5 and eds1-1 mutants. For immunoprecipitation reactions pre-immune (as control) or EDS1 antiserum was used, followed by western blotting detection with anti-c-Myc antibody. Total protein extracts were analyzed on the same western blot to show the specificity of the anti-c-Myc antibody. (B) Analysis of EDS1 and PAD4 protein expression and co-immunoprecipitation in healthy and pathogen-challenged plants. Leaves of the 5× Myc::PAD4 epitope-tagged transgenic line were spray inoculated with P.parasitica spores (1 × 105/ml in dH20) or infiltrated with suspensions (5 × 106/ml colony forming units in 10 mM MgCl2) of DC3000, DC3000 expressing avrRps4 or 10 mM MgCl2 alone, and tissues harvested at the time points indicated. Levels of EDS1 and PAD4 protein were measured on western blots of total soluble extracts probed with anti-EDS1 and anti-c-Myc antibody, respectively. Co-immunoprecipitations were performed on the same tissue extracts, as described in (A). Equal loading of blots is indicated by Ponceau S staining of total protein. An independent experiment gave similar results. (C) Analysis of EDS1 and PAD4 protein expression and co-immunoprecipitation in leaves treated with BTH. Tissues were harvested and analyzed as described in (B). Similar results were obtained in an independent experiment. Download figure Download PowerPoint Immunoprecipitation of EDS1 protein from extracts of the Myc::PAD4 line using the anti-EDS1 antiserum, followed by detection on western blots using the anti-c-Myc antibody, showed that the EDS1 and PAD4 proteins interact in healthy plant tissue (Figure 4A). Pre-immune serum was not able to co-immunoprecipitate the EDS1–PAD4 complex, indicating that immunoprecipitation was specific for EDS1. In addition, no signal was detected when co-immunoprecipitation was performed with protein extracts from the pad4-5 mutant line, showing that the Myc::PAD4 protein was specifically detected after immunoprecipitation (Figure 4A). Co-immunoprecipitation experiments, performed by first immunoprecipitating Myc::PAD4 with anti-c-Myc antibodies, followed by western blot detection of EDS1, also showed specific interaction between EDS1 and PAD4 (data not shown). Co-immunoprecipitation experiments using independent Myc::PAD4 transgenic lines gave identical results (data not shown). These data demonstrate that interaction between EDS1 and PAD4 in the yeast two-hybrid assay reflects their ability to associate in the plant. We tested, by co-immunoprecipitation, whether the extent of EDS1–PAD4 association changed after pathogen inoculation of plants. EDS1 and PAD4 protein levels in total leaf extracts did not alter substantially after infection with a virulent P.parasitica isolate, Emwa1, except at day 6 when increases in the abundance of both proteins were detectable (Figure 4B). At all stages of P.parasitica infection, PAD4 co-immunoprecipitated with EDS1. At day 6, enhanced levels of both proteins correlated with increased detection of co-immunoprecipitable PAD4 (Figure 4B), suggesting that EDS1 and PAD4 expression and physical association respond to pathogen colonization. Similar results were obtained after inoculation of plants with avirulent P.parasitica isolate, Noco2, although in this interaction no increases in total or co-immunoprecipitable EDS1 and PAD4 were observed by day 6 (data not shown). Leaves of mature plants were infiltrated with the virulent P.syringae pv. tomato strain, DC3000, or with avirulent DC3000 expressing avrRps4 (DC3000/avrRps4), allowing synchronous infection of a larger area of tissue than could be achieved with P.parasitica. Enhanced levels of EDS1 and PAD4 protein were observed in tissues responding to DC3000/avrRps4 12 h after infiltration and these persisted for up to 48 h (Figure 4B). Increased EDS1 and PAD4 expression correlated with enhanced detection of co-immunoprecipitable PAD4 (Figure 4B). A slight increase in EDS1 and PAD4 expression was also observed after inoculation with virulent DC3000, although this occurred later (48 h) than in tissues inoculated with DC3000/avrRps4 (Figure 4B). In addition, leaves were sprayed with the bioactive SA analogue, benzothiadiazole (BTH). Here, elevated EDS1 and PAD4 expression corresponded with higher levels of co-immunoprecipitable PAD4 24 h after treatment (Figure 4C). Analysis of the spectrum of Arabidopsis R genes requiring EDS1 and PAD4 Our findings that EDS1 and PAD4 interact in a two-hybrid assay and in plant cells prompted us to assess the effects of eds1 and pad4 mutants on a broader range of R gene-mediated responses within the same plant genetic background. This would establish whether EDS1 and PAD4 functions are tightly associated genetically or can be partially separated into different pathways. First, the effects of eds1-2 and pad4-2 on RPP genes recognizing distinct P.parasitica isolates were measured in accession Ler. As shown in Table I, resistance responses mediated by RPP5 and RPP21 that are fully EDS1 dependent (Aarts et al., 1998) were partially compromised by pad4, producing the characteristic trailing necrotic phenotype (see also Figure 1). In contrast, RPP7- and RPP8-mediated resistance operated independently of both EDS1 and PAD4 (Table I). Analysis was extended to R genes expressed in accession Ws-0 by isolating a line containing a T-DNA insertion in PAD4 (pad4-5; see Materials and methods). The pad4-5 mutant is an mRNA null mutant, since transcripts could not be detected using sensitive TaqMan analysis (see below). Here, we found that the EDS1-dependent RPP1A, 1B and 1C genes (Aarts et al., 1998) conferred partial resistance in pad4-5 with a similar phenotype to that observed for RPP5 and RPP21 in pad4-2 (Table I). We then measured the effects of eds1-2, pad4-2 and the NahG transgene on RPM1-, RPS2- and RPS4-mediated resistance in Ler to P.syringae pv. tomato DC3000 expressing, respectively, avrRpm1, avrRpt2 and avrRps4. Leaves were dipped into bacterial suspensions and bacterial growth and disease symptoms monitored over 5 days. Wild-type plants restricted growth of all the avirulent strains compared with growth of virulent DC3000 (Figure 5A). The eds1-2 mutation fully suppressed RPS4 resistance but did not affect resistance mediated by RPM1 and weakly compromised RPS2 resistance (Figure 5A). In leaves of pad4-2 and Ler-NahG, growth of DC3000/avrRps4 was intermediate between that observed in wild-type Ler and eds1-2 (Figure 5A). This correlated with a slow and sporadic appearance of chlorotic symptoms in pad4-2 and Ler-NahG, compared with eds1-2 (Figure 5B). Like eds1-2, pad4-2 caused a slight relaxation of RPS2-mediated resistance but had no effect on resistance conditioned by RPM1 (Figure 5A). Interestingly, Ler-NahG permitted significant growth of both DC3000/avrRpt2 and DC3000/avrRpm1 (Figure 5A), suggesting that SA is furnished in an EDS1- and PAD4-independent manner in these responses. Figure 5.Growth and symptom development of different P.syringae strains in leaves of wild-type Ler, eds1-2, pad4-2 and NahG plants. (A) Leaves of 4-week-old short day grown plants were infiltrated with a suspension (1 × 105 colony forming units/ml) of P.syringae pv. tomato strain DC3000 containing an empty vector (DC3000) or DC3000 expressing avrRps4, avrRpt2 or avrRpm1. Bacterial titres were measured at 0 and 3 days after inoculation. The measurements and standard errors are derived from four replicates per treatment. An independent experiment gave similar results. (B) Leaves were dipped in a suspension (1 × 107 c.f.u./ml) of DC3000 expressing avrRps4 and disease symptoms observed over 6 days. As shown at day 5, Ler plants appear healthy, eds1-2 plants develop severe leaf spotting symptoms, while pad4-2 and NahG plants exhibit mild leaf spotting. Download figure Download PowerPoint Table 1. Suppression of RPP gene-mediated resistance to P.parasitica in leaves of eds1 and pad4 in accessions Ler and Ws-0 Plant R gene (P.parasitica isolate) RPP5 RPP8 RPP4/8 RPP21 RPP7a – Plant Line (Noco2) (Emco5) (Emwa1) (Maks9) (Hiks1) (Cala2) Ler R R R R R S eds1-2 S* R R S* R S* pad4-2 (S) R R (S) R S* RPP1A,B,C RPP1A,B RPP1A – (Noco2) (Emoy2) (Cala2) (Emwa1) Ws-0 R R R S eds1-1 S* S* S* S-S* pad4-5 (S) (S) (S) S-S* * Two-week-old seedlings were scored 5 and 7 days after inoculation with P.parasitica. Ler is genetically susceptible to P.parasitica isolate Cala2 and Ws-0 is susceptible to isolate Emwa1. Phenotypes were assigned as R (fully resistant, wild-type HR), S (susceptibility of genetically compatible lines), S (hypersusceptible, permitting more abundant sporulation than the genetically susceptible line), (S) (partially susceptible, mycelium development accompanied by trailing plant cell necrosis and occasional sporophores). Similar results were obtained in two independent experiments. While eds1-2 and pad4-2 reproducibly exhibited hypersusceptibility to Cala2, eds1-1 and pad4-5 gave variable results between experiments, as indicated. a RPP7 in Ler is defined as an R locus cosegregating with Col-0 RPP7 in >4000 Col-0 × Ler F2 seedlings (E.Holub, personal communication). The P.parasitica and P.syringae infection studies reveal that all strongly EDS1-dependent R gene responses examined have a partial requirement for PAD4, and that EDS1-independent interactions are also independent of PAD4. These data suggest that PAD4 and EDS1 function within the same defence signaling pathway. Pathogen-induced SA accumulation in eds1 and pad4 In independent studies, PAD4 and EDS1 have been implicated as regulators of SA-dependent defences (Zhou et al., 1998; Falk et al., 1999). We therefore wished to examine the relative contributions of EDS1