The nuclear receptors LXRα and LXRβ have been implicated in the control of lipogenesis and cholesterol homeostasis. Ligand activation of these receptors in vivoinduces expression of the LXR target gene SREBP-1c and increases plasma triglyceride levels. Expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), a central enzyme in de novo lipogenesis and an established target of the SREBP-1 pathway, is also induced by LXR ligands. The effects of LXR ligands on FAS expression have been proposed to be entirely secondary to the induction of SREBP-1c. We demonstrate here that LXRs regulate FAS expression through direct interaction with the FAS promoter as well as through activation of SREBP-1c expression. Induction of FAS expression in HepG2 cells by LXR ligands is reduced, but not abolished, under conditions where SREBP processing is suppressed. Moreover, LXR ligands induce FAS expression in CHO-7 cells without altering expression of SREBP-1. We demonstrate that in addition to tandem SREBP sites, the FASpromoter contains a high affinity binding site for the LXR/RXR heterodimer that is conserved in diverse animal species including birds, rodents, and humans. The LXR and SREBP binding sites independently confer LXR responsiveness on the FASpromoter, and maximal induction requires both transcription factors. Transient elevation of plasma triglyceride levels in mice treated with a synthetic LXR agonist correlates with transient induction of hepatic FAS expression. These results indicate that the LXR signaling pathway modulates FAS expression through distinct but complementary mechanisms and suggest that the FAS gene may be a critical target in the control of lipogenesis by LXRs. The nuclear receptors LXRα and LXRβ have been implicated in the control of lipogenesis and cholesterol homeostasis. Ligand activation of these receptors in vivoinduces expression of the LXR target gene SREBP-1c and increases plasma triglyceride levels. Expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), a central enzyme in de novo lipogenesis and an established target of the SREBP-1 pathway, is also induced by LXR ligands. The effects of LXR ligands on FAS expression have been proposed to be entirely secondary to the induction of SREBP-1c. We demonstrate here that LXRs regulate FAS expression through direct interaction with the FAS promoter as well as through activation of SREBP-1c expression. Induction of FAS expression in HepG2 cells by LXR ligands is reduced, but not abolished, under conditions where SREBP processing is suppressed. Moreover, LXR ligands induce FAS expression in CHO-7 cells without altering expression of SREBP-1. We demonstrate that in addition to tandem SREBP sites, the FASpromoter contains a high affinity binding site for the LXR/RXR heterodimer that is conserved in diverse animal species including birds, rodents, and humans. The LXR and SREBP binding sites independently confer LXR responsiveness on the FASpromoter, and maximal induction requires both transcription factors. Transient elevation of plasma triglyceride levels in mice treated with a synthetic LXR agonist correlates with transient induction of hepatic FAS expression. These results indicate that the LXR signaling pathway modulates FAS expression through distinct but complementary mechanisms and suggest that the FAS gene may be a critical target in the control of lipogenesis by LXRs. A central enzyme in the pathway of de novolipogenesis, fatty acid synthase (FAS) 1The abbreviations used are: FASfatty acid synthaseSREBPsterol regulatory element-binding proteinLPDSlipoprotein-deficient fetal bovine serumbpbase pairLXRliver x receptorLXRELXR response elementHDLhigh density lipoproteinSCDsteroyl-CoA desaturaseACCacetyl-CoA carboxylaseHChydroxycholesterolDRdirect repeatCHOChinese hamster ovary catalyzes all of the steps in the conversion of malonyl-CoA to palmitate. Expression of the FAS gene is controlled primarily at the level of transcription and is responsive to both hormonal and nutritional signals (1.Sul H.S. Wang D. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 1998; 18: 331-351Crossref PubMed Scopus (236) Google Scholar, 2.Paulauskis J.D. Sul H.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1989; 264: 574-577Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Previous work has shown that sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) play a critical role in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes in the lipogenic pathway, including FAS, steroyl-CoA desaturase (SCD-1), and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) (3.Bennett M.K. Lopez J.M. Sanchez H.B. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 25578-25583Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar, 4.Lopez J.M. Bennett M.K. Sanchez H.B. Rosenfeld J.M. Osborne T.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996; 93: 1049-1053Crossref PubMed Scopus (249) Google Scholar, 5.Kim J.B. Spiegelman B.M. Genes Dev. 1996; 10: 1096-1107Crossref PubMed Scopus (846) Google Scholar, 6.Tabor D.E. Kim J.B. Spiegelman B.M. Edwards P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 20603-20610Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar, 7.Latasa M.J. Moon Y.S. Kim K.H. Sul H.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 10619-10624Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar, 8.Shimano H. Horton J.D. Hammer R.E. Shimomura I. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1575-1584Crossref PubMed Scopus (698) Google Scholar). Three SREBP isoforms have been described: SREBP-1a and −1c (also called ADD1), which are derived from the same gene through alternative splicing, and SREBP-2, which is encoded by a separate gene (9.Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Cell. 1997; 89: 331-340Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3003) Google Scholar, 10.Tontonoz P. Kim J.B. Graves R.A. Spiegelman B.M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1993; 13: 4753-4759Crossref PubMed Scopus (534) Google Scholar). Although their transcriptional targets overlap significantly, studies suggest that SREBP-1 preferentially activates genes involved in lipogenesis, whereas SREBP-2 preferentially activates genes in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway (11.Shimomura I. Shimano H. Korn B.S. Bashmakov Y. Horton J.D. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 35299-35306Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar, 12.Horton J.D. Shimomura I. Brown M.S. Hammer R.E. Goldstein J.L. Shimano H. J. Clin. Invest. 1998; 101: 2331-2339Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 13.Pai J.T. Guryev O. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 26138-26148Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar, 14.Shimano H. Horton J.D. Shimomura I. Hammer R.E. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 846-854Crossref PubMed Scopus (684) Google Scholar). SREBPs have been shown to regulate FAS expression through direct interaction with the FAS promoter at multiple sites (7.Latasa M.J. Moon Y.S. Kim K.H. Sul H.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 10619-10624Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar, 15.Magana M.M. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 32689-32694Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar). Overexpression of nuclear SREBP-1 is sufficient to induce expression of the FAS gene in cultured cells as well as transgenic mice (5.Kim J.B. Spiegelman B.M. Genes Dev. 1996; 10: 1096-1107Crossref PubMed Scopus (846) Google Scholar,8.Shimano H. Horton J.D. Hammer R.E. Shimomura I. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1575-1584Crossref PubMed Scopus (698) Google Scholar). fatty acid synthase sterol regulatory element-binding protein lipoprotein-deficient fetal bovine serum base pair liver x receptor LXR response element high density lipoprotein steroyl-CoA desaturase acetyl-CoA carboxylase hydroxycholesterol direct repeat Chinese hamster ovary Recent work has also implicated the nuclear receptors LXRα and LXRβ in the control of lipogenesis. Both LXRs bind to DNA and regulate transcription of target genes in a heterodimeric complex with RXR (16.Willy P.J. Umesono K. Ong E.S. Evans R.M. Heyman R.A. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 1995; 9: 1033-1045Crossref PubMed Scopus (920) Google Scholar). Although early studies on LXRs focused on their role in cholesterol metabolism, mice carrying a targeted disruption in the LXRα gene were noted to be deficient in expression of FAS, SCD-1, ACC, and SREBP-1, consistent with a role in lipogenesis as well (17.Peet D.J. Turley S.D. Ma W. Janowski B.A. Lobaccaro J.M. Hammer R.E. Mangelsdorf D.J. Cell. 1998; 93: 693-704Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1247) Google Scholar). Further support for this idea came with the observation that the administration of the synthetic LXR ligand T1317 to mice triggers induction of the lipogenic pathway and raises plasma triglyceride levels (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar). The demonstration that the SREBP-1c promoter is a direct target for regulation by LXR/RXR heterodimers provided a straightforward explanation for the ability of LXR ligands to induce hepatic lipogenesis (19.Repa J.J. Liang G. Ou J. Bashmakov Y. Lobaccaro J.M. Shimomura I. Shan B. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2819-2830Crossref PubMed Scopus (1418) Google Scholar, 20.Yoshikawa T. Shimano H. Amemiya-Kudo M. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Matsuzaka T. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 2991-3000Crossref PubMed Scopus (434) Google Scholar). Until now, the effects of LXR activation on the expression of lipogenic genes, including FAS, have been presumed to be entirely indirect. We demonstrate here that the FAS promoter is a direct target for regulation by the LXR/RXR heterodimer as well as SREBPs. This novel mechanism for the regulation of FAS expression and lipogenesis by LXRs has implications for the development of LXR agonists as modulators of human lipid metabolism. Expression plasmids for RXRα and LXRα, and nuclear SREBP-1a, -1c, and -2 have been described (21.Venkateswaran A. Laffitte B.A. Joseph S.B. Mak P.A. Wilpitz D.C. Edwards P.A. Tontonoz P. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 12097-12102Crossref PubMed Scopus (844) Google Scholar, 22.Magana M.M. Koo S.H. Towle H.C. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 4726-4733Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). GW3965 (23.Laffitte B.A. Joseph S.B. Walczak R. Pei L. Wilpitz D.C. Collins J.L. Tontonoz P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 7.558-7.568Crossref Scopus (284) Google Scholar) and T0901317 (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar) were provided by Timothy M. Willson (GlaxoSmithKline). Ligands were dissolved in Me2SO prior to use in cell culture. The −1594, −700, −150, and −135 rat FAS promoter luciferase reporter constructs were described previously (3.Bennett M.K. Lopez J.M. Sanchez H.B. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 25578-25583Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar). Mutations were introduced into the −700 FAS reporter using the QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis kit (Stratagene). HepG2 cells were cultured in modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum or lipoprotein-deficient fetal bovine serum (LPDS). THP-1 cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 containing 10% fetal bovine serum and differentiated for 24 h with 40 ng/ml phorbol myristyl acetate (PMA). Transient transfections of HepG2 cells were performed in triplicate in 48-well plates. Cells were transfected with reporter plasmid (100 ng/well), receptor plasmids (5–50 ng/well), pCMV-β-galactosidase (50 ng/well), and pTKCIII (to a total of 205 ng/well) using the MBS mammalian transfection kit (Stratagene). Following transfection, cells were incubated in modified Eagle's medium containing 10% LPDS and the indicated ligands or vehicle control for 24 h. Luciferase activity was normalized to β-galactosidase activity. Total RNA was isolated using Trizol reagent (Invitrogen). S1 nuclease analysis was carried out as described (3.Bennett M.K. Lopez J.M. Sanchez H.B. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 25578-25583Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar). Real time quantitative PCR assays were performed using an Applied Biosystems 7700 sequence detector as in Ref. 23.Laffitte B.A. Joseph S.B. Walczak R. Pei L. Wilpitz D.C. Collins J.L. Tontonoz P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 7.558-7.568Crossref Scopus (284) Google Scholar. Briefly, 1 μg of total RNA was reverse transcribed with random hexamers using Taqman reverse transcription reagents kit (Applied Biosystems). Each amplification mixture (50 μl) contained 50 ng of cDNA, 900 nm forward primer, 900 nm reverse primer, 100 nm dual-labeled fluorogenic probe (Applied Biosystems), and 25 μl of Universal PCR master mix. All samples were analyzed for 36β4 or 18 S rRNA expression in parallel in the same run. Quantitative expression values were extrapolated from separate standard curves for controls and unknowns generated with 10-fold dilutions of cDNA. All assays were performed in duplicate. Primer and probe sequences are available upon request. In vitro translated RXRα and LXRα were generated from pCMX-RXRα and pCMX-hLXRα using the TNT Quick Coupled transcription/translation system (Promega). Gel shift assays were performed as described (24.Laffitte B.A. Kast H.R. Nguyen C.M. Zavacki A.M. Moore D.D. Edwards P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 10638-10647Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (235) Google Scholar) using in vitrotranslated proteins. The sequences of the oligonucleotides used were (only one strand shown): rFAS, 5′-gatcacgatgaccggtagtaaccccgcc-3′; ME LXRE, 5′-gatcgctgccagggtcactggcggtcaaaggcag-3′. C57BL/6 mice (5 animals/group) were maintained on standard mouse chow and dosed with 50 mg/kg of T0901317 or vehicle alone (0.5% methylcellulose) by oral gavage once a day for 3 or 7 days. Animals were sacrificed 4 h after the last treatment on days 3 and 7. Plasma triglyceride levels were determined on an Instrumentation Laboratories ILab600 Clinical Chemistry Analyzer. Previous work has shown that expression of FAS and SREBP-1c in rodent liver is induced in response to the synthetic LXR agonist T1317 (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar). Induction of FAS expression by LXR has been presumed to be secondary to the induction of SREBP-1c; however, this hypothesis has not been tested. We identified FAS as an LXR-responsive gene in macrophages using Affymetrix cDNA microarrays (data not shown). As shown in Fig. 1A, real time quantitative PCR (Taqman) analysis confirmed that FAS expression was induced in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-differentiated THP-1 macrophages in response to treatment with either of the nonsteroidal LXR agonists, T1317 (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar) or GW3965 (23.Laffitte B.A. Joseph S.B. Walczak R. Pei L. Wilpitz D.C. Collins J.L. Tontonoz P. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 7.558-7.568Crossref Scopus (284) Google Scholar,25.Oliver Jr., W.R. Shenk J.L. Snaith M.R. Russell C.S. Plunket K.D. Bodkin N.L. Lewis M.C. Winegar D.A. Sznaidman M.L. Lambert M.H. Xu H.E. Sternbach D.D. Kliewer S.A. Hansen B.C. Willson T.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 5306-5311Crossref PubMed Scopus (966) Google Scholar). The RXR agonist LG268 also induced FAS expression, and the combination of LG268 and T1317 had an additive effect. Consistent with previous results in liver (19.Repa J.J. Liang G. Ou J. Bashmakov Y. Lobaccaro J.M. Shimomura I. Shan B. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2819-2830Crossref PubMed Scopus (1418) Google Scholar, 20.Yoshikawa T. Shimano H. Amemiya-Kudo M. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Matsuzaka T. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 2991-3000Crossref PubMed Scopus (434) Google Scholar), treatment of THP-1 macrophages with LXR ligands also led to a significant induction of SREBP-1 RNA (data not shown). To investigate whether LXR activation induced FAS expression in other peripheral cells we examined CHO-7 cells. S1 nuclease analysis demonstrated that T1317 strongly induced expression of FAS (Fig. 1B). However, unlike THP-1 cells and HepG2 cells, this induction occurred in the absence of significant induction of either SREBP-1 or the SREBP target gene HMG-CoA reductase. This observation suggests that the ability of LXR to regulate FAS expression is not entirely dependent on the ability to induce SREBP-1 expression. We further explored the regulation of the FAS promoter in HepG2 cells under different cellular sterol conditions. As shown in Fig. 1C, basal FAS expression and induction by T1317 were highest in sterol-depleted cells (cultured in LPDS, 5 μmsimvastatin, 100 μm mevalonic acid) in which levels of nuclear SREBPs are expected to be high. However, a significant induction of FAS expression was also observed in the presence of 2.5 μg/ml 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC) and 5 μg/ml cholesterol, conditions under which SREBP cleavage is suppressed. Again, these observations suggest that LXR can regulate FAS expression, at least in part, by a mechanism that is independent of SREBP-1c. The regulatory regions that mediate induction of the FASgene by LXR ligands have not been defined. In an effort to map these sequences, we analyzed the ability of LXRs and synthetic LXR ligands to regulate the FAS promoter in transient transfection assays. HepG2 cells were cotransfected with a luciferase reporter containing sequences from −1594 to +67 bp of the rat FAS promoter and cytomegalovirus promoter-driven expression vectors for LXRα and RXRα or LXRβ and RXRα. Neither the LXR/RXR expression vectors nor T1317 had any effect on the control pGL2 luciferase reporter plasmid lacking FAS promoter sequences (Fig. 2). In contrast, treatment with T1317 (1 μm) led to a significant induction in FAS reporter activity, even in the absence of transfected receptors. This induction is presumably mediated by the endogenous LXRα and LXRβ expressed by HepG2 cells. Promoter induction by T1317 was strongly enhanced by cotransfection of either LXRα′2fRXRα or LXRβ′2fRXRα, consistent with an LXR-mediated effect. The above observations indicated that the region between −1594 and +67 of the FAS promoter contains sequences that mediate induction by LXR. To further define the cis-acting elements involved in this regulation we analyzed a series of deletion constructs. As shown in Fig. 3B, constructs extending to −1594 or −700 bp were equivalently activated by LXR. Deletion of the sequence between −700 and −150 bp significantly reduced, but did not abolish, the response. Further deletion from −150 to −135 bp had no effect. Together, these observations indicate that sequences located between −700 and −150 bp as well as between −135 and +1 mediate the response of the FAS promoter to LXR/RXR. The previously identified SRE present at −150 bp (7.Latasa M.J. Moon Y.S. Kim K.H. Sul H.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 10619-10624Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar) is apparently not involved in promoter induction by LXR. The transfection studies described above were performed in cells that were cultured with lipoprotein-depleted serum, where the low levels of sterols resulted in a significant accumulation of nuclear SREBP protein. To prevent nuclear accumulation of SREBP, cells were cultured in the presence of high levels of cholesterol and 25-HC, conditions known to suppress SREBP cleavage and reduce the concentration of nuclear SREBPs to undetectable levels (26.DeBose-Boyd R.A. Ou J. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 1477-1482Crossref PubMed Scopus (205) Google Scholar). Under these conditions the vast majority of the LXR response is conferred by sequences between −700 and −150 bp (Fig. 3C). The −150 and −135 FAS constructs were not significantly induced by LXR or LXR ligand in the presence of cholesterol and 25-HC. These results are consistent with previous work localizing the sterol response sequences of the FAS promoter to two tandem SREBP binding sites between −71 and −54 bp (Fig. 3A and Ref. 15.Magana M.M. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 32689-32694Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar). Thus, LXR can regulate FAS expression through an SREBP-dependent pathway involving sequences between −135 and +67 bp as well as an SREBP-independent pathway involving sequences present between −700 and −150 bp. We hypothesized that the FAS promoter might be a target for direct regulation by LXR/RXR heterodimers as well as SREBPs. The preferred binding site for LXR/RXR is a DR-4 (direct repeat with a 4-nucleotide spacing) hormone response element (16.Willy P.J. Umesono K. Ong E.S. Evans R.M. Heyman R.A. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 1995; 9: 1033-1045Crossref PubMed Scopus (920) Google Scholar). An alignment of the FAS promoter (-699 to +1 bp relative to the transcriptional start site) from human, rat, and chicken is shown in Fig. 4. Previous work has demonstrated that the actions of SREBPs on the FAS promoter are mediated primarily by a pair of non-canonical binding sites located between −71 and −54 bp (rat) (15.Magana M.M. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 32689-32694Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar). These regulatory elements, as well as binding sites for SP-1 and NF-Y, are highly conserved. However, the SREBP site at −150, which is a perfect match to the human LDL receptor SRE in the human and rat FAS promoters, is not completely conserved in the chicken promoter. Surprisingly, although the sequence upstream of −150 bp is quite divergent in these three species, a DR-4 element present between −669 and −655 bp in the rat promoter is highly conserved. The striking conservation of this element suggested that it was likely to be an important regulatory sequence. Interestingly, the sequence of this DR-4 element in rodents and humans is identical to that of the LXR response element (LXRE) identified previously in the murine SREBP-1c promoter (Fig. 5A) (19.Repa J.J. Liang G. Ou J. Bashmakov Y. Lobaccaro J.M. Shimomura I. Shan B. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2819-2830Crossref PubMed Scopus (1418) Google Scholar, 20.Yoshikawa T. Shimano H. Amemiya-Kudo M. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Matsuzaka T. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 2991-3000Crossref PubMed Scopus (434) Google Scholar). Gel mobility shift analysis using in vitro translated LXRα and RXRα proteins and radiolabeled oligonucleotides confirmed that FAS LXRE binds LXRα/RXR heterodimers (Fig. 5B). Competition assays using unlabeled oligonucleotides revealed that the affinity of this site for LXR/RXR was slightly greater than that of the previously identified LXRE from the human apoE macrophage enhancer (27.Laffitte, B. A., Repa, J. J., Joseph, S. B., Wilpitz, D. C., Kast, H. R., Mangelsdorf, D. J., and Tontonoz, P. (2001) @@[email protected]@Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. [email protected]@/[email protected]@,Google Scholar) (Fig. 5C).Figure 5LXR/RXR heterodimers bind to the FAS DR-4 element with high affinity. A, alignment of LXR response elements from the chicken, rat, and human FAS and murine SREBP-1c promoters. B, electrophoretic mobility shift assays were performed using labeled oligonucleotides corresponding to either the FAS LXRE or the LXRE from the apoE ME enhancer (27.Laffitte, B. A., Repa, J. J., Joseph, S. B., Wilpitz, D. C., Kast, H. R., Mangelsdorf, D. J., and Tontonoz, P. (2001) @@[email protected]@Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. [email protected]@/[email protected]@,Google Scholar) and in vitro translated hLXRα and hRXRα. Unlabeled oligonucleotides were included as competitors as indicated.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) The presence of binding sites for both LXR/RXR and SREBP in the FAS promoter suggests that these two classes of transcription factors both contribute to the regulation of FAS expression. In support of this idea, we found that cotransfection of expression vectors for LXRα and RXRα along with expression vectors for the nuclear forms of SREBPs had a dramatic effect on the induction of the −700 FAS promoter in transient transfection assays. At the highest amount of expression vector tested, the combination of nuclear SREBP-1a expression vector and LXR activation led to a greater than 50-fold increase in FAS promoter activity (Fig. 6A). Expression of SREBP-1c also had an additive effect (Fig. 6B), although ∼10-fold more expression vector was needed to achieve the same level of promoter activity as with SREBP-1a. This is consistent with the known difference in activity between the SREBP-1a and -1c isoforms (14.Shimano H. Horton J.D. Shimomura I. Hammer R.E. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 846-854Crossref PubMed Scopus (684) Google Scholar,22.Magana M.M. Koo S.H. Towle H.C. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 4726-4733Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (130) Google Scholar). We further analyzed the dose response of the −700 FAS promoter to the synthetic LXR ligand T1317 in the presence and absence of SREBP. Fig. 6C illustrates that the maximal response of FAS promoter to the LXR ligand is observed in the presence of expression vectors for both LXRα/RXR and nuclear SREBP-1c. To definitively demonstrate that the effects of LXR on the FAS promoter are mediated by the combined action of the LXRE and tandem SREBP sites we analyzed FAS promoter constructs carrying specific mutations in these elements (Fig. 7A). Consistent with the results of the FAS promoter deletion analysis (Fig. 3), mutation of either the LXRE or the tandem SREBP sites between −71 and +54 reduced the activity of the promoter in the presence of cotransfected LXR expression vector and synthetic LXR ligand (Fig. 7B). Simultaneous mutation of both sites virtually abolished promoter activity. We further examined the effect of these mutations on activation of the FAS promoter by SREBP-1a. In agreement with previous work (15.Magana M.M. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 32689-32694Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (276) Google Scholar), mutation of the tandem SREBP sites resulted in a complete loss of induction by the SREBP-1a expression vector (Fig. 7C), despite the presence of the SRE element at −150 bp. The activity of the SREBP mutant FASpromoter in the presence of both LXR and SREBP was not different from that with LXR alone. As expected, mutation of the LXRE had no effect on the ability of SREBP to activate the FAS promoter, but eliminated the additive effect of LXR and SREBP. Taken together, these results indicate that LXR/RXR heterodimers and SREBPs additively regulate the FAS promoter and that this regulation requires the combined action of both the LXR and SREBP binding sites. Finally, to investigate the potential contribution of direct LXR activation of the FAS promoter to the control of lipogenesis in vivo, we analyzed the ability of the synthetic LXR ligand T1317 to regulate FAS expression and influence plasma triglyceride and HDL levels in mice. C57Bl/6 mice (5 animals per group) were treated for 3 or 7 days with either vehicle or 50 mg/kg T1317. After 3 days of treatment, plasma triglycerides increased ∼200% in response to T1317 (Fig. 8A), consistent with previous work (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar). After 7 days, however, triglyceride levels in these mice had nearly normalized. Treatment with T1317 also led to a significant elevation of plasma HDL cholesterol (Fig. 8B, HDL-C). Unlike the effect on triglycerides, the effect on HDL persisted after 7 days. Next, we endeavored to correlate changes in plasma lipid levels induced by T1317 with changes in hepatic gene expression. After 3 days of treatment, expression of FAS was induced ∼15-fold by T1317 but had largely normalized by day 7, an effect that mirrored the normalization of triglyceride levels (Fig. 8C). In contrast, expression of SREBP-1c, SCD-1, and ABCG1 was induced at day 3 and remained elevated after 7 days. Thus, alterations in plasma triglyceride levels correlated closely with temporal changes in FAS expression. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that direct action of LXR on the FAS promoter as well as induction of SREBP-1c expression are likely to contribute to regulation of lipogenesis by LXR ligands in vivo. The nuclear receptors LXRα and LXRβ are emerging as key regulators of lipid homeostasis. The physiologic ligands for these receptors are likely to be specific intermediates in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway such as (24S,25)-epoxycholesterol. LXRα is expressed primarily in liver, intestine, adipose tissue, and macrophages, whereas LXRβ is ubiquitously expressed (16.Willy P.J. Umesono K. Ong E.S. Evans R.M. Heyman R.A. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 1995; 9: 1033-1045Crossref PubMed Scopus (920) Google Scholar, 28.Peet D.J. Janowski B.A. Mangelsdorf D.J. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1998; 8: 571-575Crossref PubMed Scopus (323) Google Scholar). In peripheral cells such as macrophages LXRs play an important role in the regulation of reverse cholesterol transport and the induction of genes in response to cellular lipid loading. Multiple genes involved in the cholesterol efflux pathway, including those encoding the putative cholesterol/phospholipid transporter ABCA1 (21.Venkateswaran A. Laffitte B.A. Joseph S.B. Mak P.A. Wilpitz D.C. Edwards P.A. Tontonoz P. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 12097-12102Crossref PubMed Scopus (844) Google Scholar, 29.Costet P. Luo Y. Wang N. Tall A.R. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 28240-28245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (851) Google Scholar, 30.Repa J.J. Turley S.D. Lobaccaro J.A. Medina J. Li L. Lustig K. Shan B. Heyman R.A. Dietschy J.M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Science. 2000; 289: 1524-1529Crossref PubMed Scopus (1150) Google Scholar, 31.Schwartz K. Lawn R.M. Wade D.P. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 274: 794-802Crossref PubMed Scopus (376) Google Scholar), ABCG1 (32.Venkateswaran A. Repa J.J. Lobaccaro J.-M. A. Bronson A. Mangelsdorf D.J. Edwards P.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 14700-14707Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (346) Google Scholar), and apoE (27.Laffitte, B. A., Repa, J. J., Joseph, S. B., Wilpitz, D. C., Kast, H. R., Mangelsdorf, D. J., and Tontonoz, P. (2001) @@[email protected]@Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. [email protected]@/[email protected]@,Google Scholar), have been identified as transcriptional targets of LXRs. In the intestine, induction of ABCA1 expression by LXR or RXR ligands dramatically reduces dietary cholesterol absorption, presumably by actively transporting cholesterol from the enterocyte into the lumen of the gut (30.Repa J.J. Turley S.D. Lobaccaro J.A. Medina J. Li L. Lustig K. Shan B. Heyman R.A. Dietschy J.M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Science. 2000; 289: 1524-1529Crossref PubMed Scopus (1150) Google Scholar). These results establish that both dietary cholesterol absorption and the rate of cholesterol efflux in peripheral cells are controlled by LXR signaling pathways. In the liver, LXRs appear to regulate both cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Mice carrying a targeted disruption of the Lxrα gene fail to induce transcription of the gene encoding cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), the rate-limiting enzyme in bile acid synthesis, in response to dietary cholesterol (17.Peet D.J. Turley S.D. Ma W. Janowski B.A. Lobaccaro J.M. Hammer R.E. Mangelsdorf D.J. Cell. 1998; 93: 693-704Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1247) Google Scholar). In addition, mice lacking LXRα are deficient in the expression of several genes involved in lipogenesis, including FAS, SCD-1, ACC, and SREBP-1. Further evidence for the involvement of LXRs in lipogenesis came with the observation that treatment of mice with the synthetic LXR ligand T1317 induces expression of lipogenic genes and raises plasma triglyceride levels (18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar). The recent demonstration that the SREBP-1c promoter is a direct target for regulation by LXR/RXR heterodimers provided a potential explanation for the ability of LXR ligands to induce hepatic lipogenesis (19.Repa J.J. Liang G. Ou J. Bashmakov Y. Lobaccaro J.M. Shimomura I. Shan B. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2819-2830Crossref PubMed Scopus (1418) Google Scholar, 20.Yoshikawa T. Shimano H. Amemiya-Kudo M. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Matsuzaka T. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 21: 2991-3000Crossref PubMed Scopus (434) Google Scholar). Until now, the effects of LXR activation on the expression of lipogenic genes, including FAS, have been presumed to be entirely indirect. We have shown here that LXRs regulate FAS expression through direct interaction with the FAS promoter as well as through indirect effects on SREBP-1c. The observation that synthetic LXR ligands induce FAS expression in certain cell types in the absence of changes in SREBP-1 expression led us to map the promoter sequences involved in LXR induction. We found that in addition to binding sites for SREBPs, the FAS promoter contains a high affinity binding site for the LXR/RXR heterodimer that is conserved in birds, rodents, and humans. The LXR and SREBP binding sites independently confer LXR-responsiveness on the FAS promoter, and maximal induction requires the binding of both transcription factors. Finally, plasma triglyceride levels in mice treated with a synthetic LXR agonist correlated with increased FAS expression more closely than with SREBP-1c expression. Taken together our results strongly suggest that direct actions of LXR on the FAS promoter contribute to regulation of lipogenesis by LXR ligands in vivo. The identification of the FAS promoter as a direct target for LXR/RXR heterodimers fits well with the previously hypothesized role for LXR as a cholesterol sensor (19.Repa J.J. Liang G. Ou J. Bashmakov Y. Lobaccaro J.M. Shimomura I. Shan B. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mangelsdorf D.J. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2819-2830Crossref PubMed Scopus (1418) Google Scholar). The LXR pathway provides a mechanism whereby cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism can be coupled. Under conditions where cellular cholesterol levels are high, it is appropriate that the substrate for cholesterol esterification, fatty acids, be readily available. Our results indicate that LXRs have the ability to control FAS expression in peripheral cells such as macrophages as well as hepatocytes. The ability to up-regulate FAS expression in response to cholesterol may be particularly important for peripheral cells because, unlike hepatocytes, they do not express CYP7A and are unable to synthesize bile acids. It is also interesting to note that the SREBP-1c promoter is itself a target for both SREBP and LXR (33.Amemiya-Kudo M. Shimano H. Yoshikawa T. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Shionoiri F. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Sato R. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 31078-31085Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar). In previous studies of both the SREBP-1c and FAS promoters, deletion of the regions now known to contain the LXREs resulted in an increase in sterol-dependent regulation (3.Bennett M.K. Lopez J.M. Sanchez H.B. Osborne T.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 25578-25583Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (333) Google Scholar, 33.Amemiya-Kudo M. Shimano H. Yoshikawa T. Yahagi N. Hasty A.H. Okazaki H. Tamura Y. Shionoiri F. Iizuka Y. Ohashi K. Osuga J. Harada K. Gotoda T. Sato R. Kimura S. Ishibashi S. Yamada N. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 31078-31085Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (212) Google Scholar). Taken together, the current and previous observations suggest that coregulation of these genes by LXR and SREBP may serve to balance their expression under fluctuating sterol conditions. The possibility that this regulatory arrangement is conserved in the control regions of other lipogenic genes is under investigation. The ability of synthetic LXR ligands to promote cellular cholesterol efflux makes them potentially attractive agents for the modulation of human lipid metabolism. Their lipogenic activity, however, is a major limitation. Although the ability of LXR ligands to raise HDL levels is promising, the transient hypertriglyceridemia induced by the currently available agonists is an undesirable side effect. Clearly, a detailed understanding of the mechanism whereby LXR ligands raise triglyceride levels will be required before LXR can be optimized as a drug target. The observation that the FAS gene is under direct as well as indirect control of LXR suggests that the relative ability of synthetic LXR agonists to the FAS promoter may be a key determinant of their effects on hepatic lipogenesis. In our study, hepatic FAS expression and plasma triglyceride levels were acutely elevated but then declined during chronic administration of an LXR ligand over 7 days. These observations suggest that compensatory mechanisms may counter LXR effects on the FAS promoter in response to chronic stimulation. The mechanistic basis for this effect is not yet clear. Ultimately, it may be possible to identify LXR agonists that have selective activity on certain LXR target genes. The most desirable compound would be one that was a strong inducer of ABCA1 and apoE expression yet lacked activity on the FAS and SREBP-1c promoters. Expression of LXRα is more prominent than LXRβ in liver, and studies with knockout mice suggest that LXRα is the dominant receptor involved in the control of hepatic lipogenesis (17.Peet D.J. Turley S.D. Ma W. Janowski B.A. Lobaccaro J.M. Hammer R.E. Mangelsdorf D.J. Cell. 1998; 93: 693-704Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1247) Google Scholar, 18.Schultz J.R. Tu H. Luk A. Repa J.J. Medina J.C. Li L. Schwendner S. Wang S. Thoolen M. Mangelsdorf D.J. Lustig K.D. Shan B. Genes Dev. 2000; 14: 2831-2838Crossref PubMed Scopus (1398) Google Scholar). Moreover, given the wider tissue distribution of LXRβ, this receptor is well positioned to control expression of ABCA1 and rates of cholesterol efflux in many peripheral tissues. Together, these observations suggest that LXRβ-selective agonists might be particularly useful for the modulation of human lipid metabolism. We thank Timothy M. Willson (GlaxoSmithKline) for GW3965 and T0901317 and Rich Heyman (Ligand Pharmaceuticals) for LG268. We also thank Peter Edwards and Timothy M. Willson for helpful discussions and Brenda Mueller for administrative support.