Chronic use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs results in a significant reduction of risk and mortality from colorectal cancer in humans. All of the mechanism(s) by which nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs exert their protective effects are not completely understood, but they are known to inhibit cyclooxygenase activity. The cyclooxygenase enzymes catalyze a key reaction in the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins, such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Here we demonstrate that PGE2 treatment of LS-174 human colorectal carcinoma cells leads to increased motility and changes in cell shape. The prostaglandin EP4 receptor signaling pathway appears to play a role in transducing signals which regulate these effects. PGE2 treatment results in an activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway that is required for the PGE2-induced changes in carcinoma cell motility and colony morphology. Our results suggest that PGE2 might enhance the invasive potential of colorectal carcinoma cells via activation of major intracellular signal transduction pathways not previously reported to be regulated by prostaglandins. Chronic use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs results in a significant reduction of risk and mortality from colorectal cancer in humans. All of the mechanism(s) by which nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs exert their protective effects are not completely understood, but they are known to inhibit cyclooxygenase activity. The cyclooxygenase enzymes catalyze a key reaction in the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandins, such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Here we demonstrate that PGE2 treatment of LS-174 human colorectal carcinoma cells leads to increased motility and changes in cell shape. The prostaglandin EP4 receptor signaling pathway appears to play a role in transducing signals which regulate these effects. PGE2 treatment results in an activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B pathway that is required for the PGE2-induced changes in carcinoma cell motility and colony morphology. Our results suggest that PGE2 might enhance the invasive potential of colorectal carcinoma cells via activation of major intracellular signal transduction pathways not previously reported to be regulated by prostaglandins. nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug E-prostanoid prostaglandin extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen-activated protein phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction cyclooxygenase phosphate-buffered saline focal adhesion kinase protein kinase B There is a 40–50% reduction in the relative risk of colorectal cancer and colorectal cancer-associated mortality in individuals taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)1 (1Thun M.J. Namboodiri M.M. Calle E.E. Flanders W.D. Heath C.W.J. Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 1322-1327PubMed Google Scholar, 2Peleg I.I. Maibach H.T. Brown S.H. Wilcox C.M. Arch. Int. Med. 1994; 154: 394-399Crossref PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar, 3Giovannucci E. Egan K.M. Hunter D.J. Stampfer M.J. Colditz G.A. Willett W.C. Speizer F.E. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995; 333: 609-614Crossref PubMed Scopus (975) Google Scholar). Inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity is thought to represent one of the mechanisms by which NSAIDs exert their anti-neoplastic effects (Refs. 4Sheng H. Shao J. Kirkland S.C. Isakson P. Coffey R.J. Morrow J.D. Beauchamp R.D. DuBois R.N. J. Clin. Invest. 1997; 99: 2254-2259Crossref PubMed Scopus (695) Google Scholarand 5Sheng H. Shao J. Morrow J.D. Beauchamp R.D. DuBois R.N. Cancer Res. 1998; 58: 362-366PubMed Google Scholar; reviewed in Ref. 6Williams C.S. Mann M. DuBois R.N. Oncogene. 1999; 18: 7908-7916Crossref PubMed Scopus (1236) Google Scholar). In support of this hypothesis, lack of the COX-2 (prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-2) gene results in a reduction of the number of tumors which develop in mice heterozygous for an APCΔ716 mutation by more than 7-fold (7Oshima M. Dinchuk J.E. Kargman S. Oshima H. Hancock B. Kwong E. Trzaskos J.M. Evans J.F. Taketo M.M. Cell. 1996; 87: 803-809Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2268) Google Scholar). Additionally, COX-2 expression in colorectal carcinoma cells provides a growth and survival advantage (5Sheng H. Shao J. Morrow J.D. Beauchamp R.D. DuBois R.N. Cancer Res. 1998; 58: 362-366PubMed Google Scholar, 8Tsujii M. DuBois R.N. Cell. 1995; 83: 493-501Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2129) Google Scholar), and increases tumor cell invasiveness (9Tsujii M. Sunao K. DuBois R.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1997; 94: 3336-3340Crossref PubMed Scopus (1324) Google Scholar). Treatment with selective COX-2 inhibitors significantly reduces the adenoma burden in humans (10Steinbach G. Lynch P.M. Phillips R.K. Wallace M.H. Hawk E. Gordon G.B. Wakabayashi N. Saunders B. Shen Y. Fujimura T. Su L. Levin B. Godio L. Patterson S. Rodriguez-Bigas M.A. Jester S.L. King K.L. Schumacher M. Abbruzzese J. DuBois R.N. Hittelman W.H. Zimmerman S. Sherman J.W. Kelloff G. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000; 342: 1946-1952Crossref PubMed Scopus (2247) Google Scholar) and in animals (11Reddy B.S. Hirose Y. Lubet R. Steele V. Kelloff G. Paulson S. Seibert K. Rao C.V. Cancer Res. 2000; 60: 293-297PubMed Google Scholar). There are two isoforms of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase, which are commonly referred to as COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is produced constitutively in many different cell types and tissues (12O'Neill G. Hutchinson A.F. FEBS Lett. 1993; 330: 156-160Crossref PubMed Scopus (732) Google Scholar), but its expression can be regulated under some circumstances (13Smith C.J. Morrow J.D. Roberts L.J., II Marnett L.J. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1993; 192: 787-793Crossref PubMed Scopus (120) Google Scholar). COX-2 is induced by cytokines, growth factors, and tumor promoters (reviewed in Ref. 14Williams C.S. DuBois R.N. Am. J. Physiol. 1996; 270: G393-G400PubMed Google Scholar). In studies of human colorectal cancer, COX-2 levels are increased in about 90% of cancers and ∼50% of pre-malignant colorectal adenomas, but the enzyme is not usually detected in adult intestinal tissues (15Eberhart C.E. Coffey R.J. Radhika A. Giardiello F.M. Ferrenbach S. DuBois R.N. Gastroenterology. 1994; 107: 1183-1188Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 16Kargman S.L. O'Neill G.P. Vickers P.J. Evans J.F. Mancini J.A. Jothy S. Cancer Res. 1995; 55: 2556-2559PubMed Google Scholar). Cyclooxygenase catalyzes the conversion of arachidonic acid to prostaglandin (PG) G2 and PGH2. PGH2 is subsequently converted to a variety of prostaglandins, which include PGE2, PGD2, PGF2α, PGI2, and thromboxane A2 by each respective prostaglandin synthase. Prostaglandins are synthesized by a wide variety of human tissues and serve as autocrine or paracrine lipid mediators to signal changes within their immediate environment. PGs are involved in diverse biological processes, which include inflammation, blood clotting, ovulation, implantation, initiation of labor, bone metabolism, nerve growth, wound healing, kidney function, blood vessel tone, and immune responses (reviewed in Ref. 17DuBois R.N. Abramson S.B. Crofford L. Gupta R.A. Simon L.S. Van De Putte L.B.A. Lipsky P.E. FASEB J. 1998; 12: 1063-1073Crossref PubMed Scopus (2198) Google Scholar). The precise contribution of increased biosynthesis of prostaglandins by COX-2 to the progression of neoplasia is currently under evaluation. For example, PGE2 generated in colorectal carcinomas may enhance cell survival and/or may affect other aspects of epithelial cell behavior such as cell-cell or cell-substrate adhesion (5Sheng H. Shao J. Morrow J.D. Beauchamp R.D. DuBois R.N. Cancer Res. 1998; 58: 362-366PubMed Google Scholar). A link between the neoplastic effect of carcinogen treatment and prostaglandin signaling was recently made by the observation that genetic disruption of the E-prostanoid receptor subtype 1 (EP1) results in a reduction in the number of aberrant crypt foci that develop in mice following carcinogen treatment (18Watanabe K. Kawamori T. Nakatsugi S. Ohta T. Ohuchida S. Yamamoto H. Maruyama T. Kondo K. Ushikubi F. Narumiya S. Sugimura T. Wakabayashi K. Cancer Res. 1999; 59: 5093-5096PubMed Google Scholar). Based on these findings, we sought to determine the effects of PGE2 on the biology of colorectal carcinoma cells. We found that PGE2 stimulated an increase in the proliferation and motility of colorectal carcinoma cells. LS-174 cells were purchased from ATCC (Manassas, VA). The cells were maintained in McCoy's 5A medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum. LY 294002 and wortmannin were purchased from Calbiochem (La Jolla, CA). PGE2, butaprost, sulprostone, and PGE1 alcohol were purchased from Cayman Chemical (Ann Arbor, MI). Immunoblot analysis was performed as described previously (19Sheng G.G. Shao J. Sheng H. Hooton E.B. Isakson P.C. Morrow J.D. Coffey R.J. DuBois R.N. Beauchamp R.D. Gastroenterology. 1997; 113: 1883-1891Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (180) Google Scholar). Cells were lysed for 30 min in radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer (1× PBS, 1% Nonidet P-40, 0.5% sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% SDS, 10 mg/ml phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 10 μg/ml aprotinin, 1 mm sodium orthovanadate) and then clarified cell lysates were denatured and fractionated by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. After electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes and the filters were incubated with the antibodies indicated and developed by the enhanced chemiluminescence system (ECL, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The anti-phosphorylated Akt antibody was purchased from New England Biolabs (Beverly, MA), and the anti-active ERK1/2 antibody was fromPromega (Madison, WI). 1 × 104 cells were suspended in 0.5 ml of 1:2 diluted Matrigel® (Collaborative Biomedical Products, Bedford, MA), and the mixture was plated into 24-well plates. PGE2in fresh medium was added to the cell culture every 2 days. After the plates were incubated for 10–15 days, they were photographed using a camera attached to an inverted microscope. Relative colony size was determined by measuring 10 random colonies in each slide (50 measurements/well). The mean for each treatment set was calculated and compared with controls. p42/p44 MAP kinase activity was measured by determining the transfer of the phosphate group of adenosine 5′-triphosphate to a peptide that is a highly specific substrate for p42/44 MAP kinase (Biotrak system, Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). For determination of Akt kinase activity we used the Akt kinase assay kit made by New England Biolabs (Beverly, MA) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Serum-starved cells were treated with PGE2 and then lysed at the indicated times. Akt was immunoprecipitated using a monospecific Akt antibody. The immunoprecipitate was then incubated with a GSK-3 fusion protein in the presence of ATP. Phosphorylation of GSK-3 was measured by Western blotting using an anti-phospho-GSK-3α/β (Ser21/9) antibody. PI3K assays were performed as described by Jianget al. (20Jiang K. Coppola D. Crespo N.C. Nicosia S.V. Hamilton A.D. Sebti S.M. Cheng J.Q. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000; 20: 139-148Crossref PubMed Scopus (228) Google Scholar). Cells were lysed and immunoprecipitated with anti-Tyr(P) antibody (4G10, Upstate Biotechnology, Lake Placid, NY). The activity of PI3K in immunoprecipitates was determined by incubating the beads with reaction buffer (10 mm Hepes, pH 7.4, 10 mm MgCl2, 50 μm ATP, 20 μCi of [γ-32P]ATP, and 10 μg ofl-α-phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate) for 20 min at 25 °C. Phosphorylated products were separated by thin layer chromatography and visualized by autoradiography. LS-174 cells were grown in 35-mm tissue culture plates and fixed in methanol/acetone at −20 °C for 10 min. Fixed cells were incubated with 10% normal donkey serum for 1 h and then with anti-FAK or anti-paxillin antibody (Transduction Laboratories, Lexington, KY) for 2 h at room temperature. After washing the cells three times with PBS, they were incubated with Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-mouse IgG (Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, PA) for an additional 1 h. The cells were then washed with PBS, mounted, and observed under fluorescent microscopy with appropriate filters. For direct immunofluorescence, cells were fixed with formaldehyde-Triton solution and then incubated with 10 nm fluorescent phalloidin for 30 min. Cell migration and invasion assays were carried out using Transwell chambers (8 μm, Corning Costar Co., Cambridge, MA). 5 × 104 cells suspended in 400 μl of serum-free McCoy's 5A medium were placed in the uncoated (migration assay) or 1:10 diluted Matrigel®-coated (invasion assay) upper chamber. The lower chamber was filled with 1 ml of McCoy's 5A medium containing vehicle or 0.1 μm PGE2. After an incubation period of 20 h at 37 °C, the cells on the upper surface of the filter were removed with a cotton swab. The filters were fixed and stained with 0.5% crystal violet solution. Cells adhering to the undersurface of the filter were counted. Three independent experiments were carried out, and the data are expressed as the mean ± S.E. of assays performed in triplicate. RT-PCR was carried out using the RNA PCR kit from PerkinElmer Life Sciences. A set of specific PCR primers for EP receptor subtypes (GenBank™ accession numbers NM000955, NM0000956, NM000957, and NM000958 for EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4, respectively) have been designed as follows: EP1 fragment, forward (5′-ACCGACCTGGCGGGCCACGTGA-3′; 321–342) and reverse (5′-CGCTGAGCGTGTTGCACACCAG-3′; 750–729); EP2 fragment, forward (5′-TCCAATGACTCCCAGTCTGAGG-3′; 169–190) and reverse (5′-TGCATAGATGACAGGCAGCACG-3′; 642–621); EP3 fragment, forward (5′-GATCACCATGCTGCTCACTG-3′; 396–415) and reverse (5′-AGTTATGCGAAGAGCTAGTCC-3′; 904–884); EP4 fragment, forward (5′-GGGCTGGCTGTCACCGACCTG-3′; 565–585) and reverse (5′-GGTGCGGCGCATGAACTGGCG-3′; 1050–1030). One μg of total RNA was reverse-transcribed and amplified with 35 PCR cycles. The amplified products were visualized on 1.5% agarose gels. Constitutive expression of COX-2 has been reported in 85–90% of colorectal carcinomas (15Eberhart C.E. Coffey R.J. Radhika A. Giardiello F.M. Ferrenbach S. DuBois R.N. Gastroenterology. 1994; 107: 1183-1188Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 16Kargman S.L. O'Neill G.P. Vickers P.J. Evans J.F. Mancini J.A. Jothy S. Cancer Res. 1995; 55: 2556-2559PubMed Google Scholar). COX-2 is expressed in both carcinoma and stromal cells (21Chapple K.S. Cartwright E.J. Hawcroft G. Tisbury A. Bonifer C. Scott N. Windsor A.C.J. Guillou P.J. Markham A.F. Coletta P.L. Hull M.A. Am. J. Pathol. 2000; 156: 545-553Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar). Therefore, it is possible that carcinoma cells that do not express COX-2 could receive paracrine signals from PGE2 produced by neighboring stromal cells. In order to elucidate whether PGE2 might exert any effect on the phenotype of colon cancer cells, LS-174 human colon cancer cells were treated with PGE2. LS-174 cells do not generate detectable prostaglandins, although COX-2 protein is detected in this cell line (22Shao J. Sheng H. Inoue H. Morrow J.D. DuBois R.N. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 33951-33956Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (247) Google Scholar). LS-174 cells are able to form “crypt-like” aggregates when they are cultured in Matrigel®. We found that exogenously added PGE2 exerted a growth-stimulatory effect on LS-174 cells (Fig.1 A). The size of LS-174 colonies in Matrigel® increased following PGE2treatment in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 1 B). Treatment with 10 nm PGE2 resulted in optimal stimulation of LS-174 cell growth, causing a 2-fold increase in colony diameter. To our surprise, treatment with PGE2 caused a dramatic change in the morphology of the LS-174 colonies. When grown in extracellular matrix components (Matrigel®), LS-174 cells formed well organized structures consisting of an outside layer of cells with an acellular center (Fig.2 A, panel a). Positive Alcian Blue staining indicated that the LS-174 colonies were filled with colonic type mucin (data not shown). In contrast, the LS-174 cells exposed to PGE2 formed irregular solid clumps of cells with a poorly organized structure (Fig.2 A, panel b). When grown on plastic culture dishes, LS-174 cells formed in “non-spreading” round clumps (Fig. 2 A, panel c). Addition of 10 nm PGE2 led to a rapid change in phenotype, which included increased spreading of cells within 2–4 h (Fig.2 A, panel d). Fluorescent staining with rhodamine-phalloidin demonstrated that PGE2 treatment for 24 h resulted in protruding actin filaments from the cell periphery in the form of microspikes (Fig. 2 B,panel b, white arrows) and an increase in the number of stress fibers (Fig. 2 B,panel b, black arrows). PGE2 treatment also increased focal adhesion complexes as determined by immunostaining for focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and paxillin. Normally, FAK and paxillin are localized to the cytoplasm in LS-174 cells (Fig. 2 B, panels c ande), but following PGE2 treatment the proteins accumulated into focal adhesions at the ends of actin stress fibers (Fig. 2 B, panels d and f,arrows). To further examine the spreading behavior induced by PGE2, we carried out experiments using a modified Boyden chamber. Treatment of cells with PGE2 resulted in a significant increase (2–3-fold) in cell motility (Fig.3 A). Addition of 0.1 μm PGE2 also promoted the movement of LS-174 cells through a Matrigel®-coated polycarbonate membrane by 2–3-fold (Fig. 3 B). Therefore, PGE2 altered the behavior of LS-174 cells by stimulating an increase in their motility, which could explain, in part, their change in cellular organization when grown as multicellular colonies. We next determined if LS-174 cells express EP receptors, which are known to bind PGE2 with a high affinity (reviewed in Ref. 23Breyer M.D. Breyer R.M. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2000; 9: 23-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). The expression of EP receptors in LS-174 cells was determined by RT-PCR using specific oligonucleotide primers. EP2, EP3, and EP4 were clearly expressed in LS-174 cells (Fig. 4 A), but mRNA for the EP1 receptor was barely detectable. To elucidate the functional role of EP receptor subtypes in LS-174 cells, we treated the cells with butaprost (1 μm, a selective EP2 receptor agonist), sulprostone (5 μm, a selective EP3 receptor agonist), and PGE1alcohol (10 nm, a selective EP4 receptor agonist). Treatment with butaprost or sulprostone did not cause significant changes in cell morphology (data not shown). However, treatment with the PGE1 alcohol (10 nm) resulted in more rapid and significant cell spreading when compared with the effect of PGE2 alone. Alterations in LS-174 cell spreading were seen within 1 h following addition of the PGE1 alcohol (Fig. 4 B). Thus, LS-174 cell spreading and migration, stimulated by PGE2, may be predominantly mediated through the EP4 signaling pathway. A number of signaling pathways is known to regulate cell growth and motility. The MAP kinase/ERK kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathways were evaluated following PGE2 treatment. Treatment of LS-174 cells with PGE2 (100 nm) only had a modest effect on the activity of ERK1/2. PGE2 treatment slightly increased the levels of phosphorylated ERK1/2 as determined by Western blotting analysis (Fig.5 A, upper panel). The results of an ERK kinase assay confirmed this finding (Fig. 5 A, lower panel). On the other hand, treatment with PGE2 led to a marked activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway. The levels of phosphorylated (Ser-473) Akt/PKB were elevated following treatment with PGE2 in LS-174 cells (Fig. 5 B, upper panel). Kinase assays, which measure the capacity to phosphorylate GSK-3 kinase, demonstrated that Akt kinase activity was greatly increased following PGE2 treatment of LS-174 cells (Fig. 5 B, lower panel). It is known that Akt/PKB can be activated by G protein-coupled signaling in both a PI3K-dependent and -independent manner. Kinase assays failed to detect any PI3K activity in serum-starved LS-174 cells, and treatment with PGE2 resulted in rapid induction of PI3K activity, as determined by the conversion of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate to phosphatidylinositol 3,4-bisphosphate (Fig. 5 C). To confirm the involvement of PI3K in PGE2 activation of Akt/PKB, we evaluated two inhibitors of this pathway (wortmannin (0.1 μm) and LY 294002 (10 μm)) and found that they both completely blocked PGE2-induced phosphorylation of Akt/PKB (Fig.5 D). To determine whether the activation of Akt/PKB by PGE2 altered the phenotype of LS-174 cells, the cells were treated with PGE2 in the presence of specific PI3K inhibitors, LY 294002 (5 μm) and wortmannin (0.1 μm). Both LY-294002 and wortmannin, at low concentrations, have been demonstrated to specifically target PI3K activity (24Vlahos C.J. Matter W.F. Hui K.Y. Brown R.F. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 5241-5248Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). LS-174 cells were grown on plastic dishes and subjected to serum deprivation for 48 h. The cells were then treated with PGE2 (0.1 μm) in the presence or absence of LY 294002 or wortmannin for 24 h. DNA synthesis was evaluated by [3H]thymidine incorporation assays. PGE2treatment resulted in a 70% increase in [3H]thymidine incorporation in LS-174 cells, and addition of 5 μm LY 294002 completely blocked the PGE2-induced increase in DNA synthesis. The presence of 0.1 μm wortmannin also abolished the PGE2 effect on DNA synthesis (Fig.6 A). Although inhibition of PI3K/Akt activity blocked PGE2-induced growth effects, LY 294002 and wortmannin (0.1 μm) also prevented the PGE2-induced cell spreading in LS-174 cells (Fig.6 B and data not shown). Next, we evaluated the role of PI3K/Akt activity on cell motility. Modified Boyden chamber assays demonstrated that PGE2 treatment resulted in a 2–2.5-fold increase in cell motility, and 5 μm LY 294002 or 0.1 μm wortmannin completely abolished this effect (Fig. 6,C and D). Since PGE2 treatment dramatically altered the growth and morphology of LS-174 colonies in Matrigel®, it was of interest to determine the effects of PI3K/Akt activity on LS-174 cells grown in Matrigel®. As demonstrated in Fig.7 A, LY 294002 impaired the ability of LS-174 cells to grow in Matrigel® whereas PGE2 significantly increased the size and altered the morphology of LS-174 colonies. Interestingly, addition of LY 294002 completely blocked the PGE2 effects on cells grown in Matrigel® by inhibiting colony growth and the invasive morphology. Wortmannin exerted similar effects but to a lesser degree on LS-174 cells grown in Matrigel® (Fig. 7 B and data not shown). It is now clear that COX-2 plays a role in the promotion of colorectal cancer (6Williams C.S. Mann M. DuBois R.N. Oncogene. 1999; 18: 7908-7916Crossref PubMed Scopus (1236) Google Scholar). However, the effects of prostaglandins generated by COX-2 have largely been unexplored. Here we provide evidence that prostaglandin-mediated signaling affects cell proliferation, motility, and morphogenesis and that activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway is essential for the PGE2-induced changes in neoplastic potential. To evaluate the effect of prostaglandins on the behavior of colorectal carcinoma cells, we employed several approaches. Treatment with PGE2 stimulated DNA synthesis and cell spreading in LS-174 cells grown on plastic cultures. LS-174 cells form well differentiated multicellular colonies in Matrigel®, mimicking tumor growth in animals. Treatment of LS-174 colonies with PGE2led to a significant disruption of their cellular organization with increased motility. The stimulation of cell migration by PGE2 has been observed previously in mesangial, endothelial, and T cells (25Jaffer S. Mattana J. Singhal P.C. Am. J. Nephrol. 1995; 15: 300-305Crossref PubMed Scopus (14) Google Scholar, 26Leppert D. Hauser S.L. Kishiyama J.L. An S. Zeng L. Goetzl E.J. FASEB J. 1995; 9: 1473-1481Crossref PubMed Scopus (111) Google Scholar, 27Schmidt C. Laporte A. De Baetselier P. Invasion Metastasis. 1997; 17: 53-61PubMed Google Scholar). Forced expression of COX-2 in colon carcinoma cells results in increased invasiveness compared with the parental cells (9Tsujii M. Sunao K. DuBois R.N. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 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