Article13 April 2012Open Access The mechanism of γ-Secretase dysfunction in familial Alzheimer disease Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Leen Bammens Leen Bammens VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Iryna Benilova Iryna Benilova VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Annelies Vandersteen Annelies Vandersteen Faculty of Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, AE Enschede, The Netherlands Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Manasi Benurwar Manasi Benurwar VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Marianne Borgers Marianne Borgers VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Sam Lismont Sam Lismont VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Lujia Zhou Lujia Zhou VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Simon Van Cleynenbreugel Simon Van Cleynenbreugel VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Hermann Esselmann Hermann Esselmann Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Clinics Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Jens Wiltfang Jens Wiltfang Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Clinics Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Lutgarde Serneels Lutgarde Serneels VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Eric Karran Eric Karran Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Harrie Gijsen Harrie Gijsen Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Joost Schymkowitz Joost Schymkowitz VIB Switch Laboratory, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Frederic Rousseau Frederic Rousseau Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium VIB Switch Laboratory, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Kerensa Broersen Kerensa Broersen Faculty of Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, AE Enschede, The Netherlands Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Bart De Strooper Corresponding Author Bart De Strooper VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Leen Bammens Leen Bammens VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Iryna Benilova Iryna Benilova VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Annelies Vandersteen Annelies Vandersteen Faculty of Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, AE Enschede, The Netherlands Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Manasi Benurwar Manasi Benurwar VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Marianne Borgers Marianne Borgers VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Sam Lismont Sam Lismont VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Lujia Zhou Lujia Zhou VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Simon Van Cleynenbreugel Simon Van Cleynenbreugel VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Hermann Esselmann Hermann Esselmann Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Clinics Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Jens Wiltfang Jens Wiltfang Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Clinics Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany Search for more papers by this author Lutgarde Serneels Lutgarde Serneels VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Eric Karran Eric Karran Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Harrie Gijsen Harrie Gijsen Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Joost Schymkowitz Joost Schymkowitz VIB Switch Laboratory, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Frederic Rousseau Frederic Rousseau Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium VIB Switch Laboratory, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Kerensa Broersen Kerensa Broersen Faculty of Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, AE Enschede, The Netherlands Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Bart De Strooper Corresponding Author Bart De Strooper VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium Search for more papers by this author Author Information Lucía Chávez-Gutiérrez1,2, Leen Bammens1,2, Iryna Benilova1,2, Annelies Vandersteen3,4, Manasi Benurwar1,2, Marianne Borgers1,2, Sam Lismont1,2, Lujia Zhou1,2, Simon Van Cleynenbreugel1,2, Hermann Esselmann5, Jens Wiltfang5, Lutgarde Serneels1,2, Eric Karran2, Harrie Gijsen6, Joost Schymkowitz7, Frederic Rousseau4,7, Kerensa Broersen3,8 and Bart De Strooper 1,2 1VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium 2Center for Human Genetics (CME) and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KUL), Leuven, Belgium 3Faculty of Science and Technology, MIRA Institute for Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente, AE Enschede, The Netherlands 4Switch Laboratory, Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, KULeuven, Leuven, Belgium 5Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, LVR-Clinics Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany 6Janssen Research & Development, a Division of Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium 7VIB Switch Laboratory, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB), Leuven, Belgium 8Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium *Corresponding author. VIB, Center for the Biology of Disease, Center for Human Genetics, University of Leuven (KUL), Herestraat 49, Leuven, Flanders B-3000, Belgium. Tel.:+32 16 346227; Fax:+32 16 347181; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2012)31:2261-2274https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2012.79 There is a Have you seen? (May 2012) associated with this Article. PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The mechanisms by which mutations in the presenilins (PSEN) or the amyloid precursor protein (APP) genes cause familial Alzheimer disease (FAD) are controversial. FAD mutations increase the release of amyloid β (Aβ)42 relative to Aβ40 by an unknown, possibly gain-of-toxic-function, mechanism. However, many PSEN mutations paradoxically impair γ-secretase and ‘loss-of-function’ mechanisms have also been postulated. Here, we use kinetic studies to demonstrate that FAD mutations affect Aβ generation via three different mechanisms, resulting in qualitative changes in the Aβ profiles, which are not limited to Aβ42. Loss of ε-cleavage function is not generally observed among FAD mutants. On the other hand, γ-secretase inhibitors used in the clinic appear to block the initial ε-cleavage step, but unexpectedly affect more selectively Notch than APP processing, while modulators act as activators of the carboxypeptidase-like (γ) activity. Overall, we provide a coherent explanation for the effect of different FAD mutations, demonstrating the importance of qualitative rather than quantitative changes in the Aβ products, and suggest fundamental improvements for current drug development efforts. Introduction A central and still unresolved debate with important therapeutic implications in the field of Alzheimer disease (AD) research revolves around the question of how mutations in presenilin (PSEN), the catalytic core of the γ-secretases (De Strooper et al, 1998), cause disease. The γ-secretases are intramembrane cleaving protein complexes (Hebert et al, 2004; Shirotani et al, 2004) responsible for the generation of amyloid β (Aβ) from the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Aβ peptides of different lengths accumulate in amyloid plaques in the AD brain. More than 150 familial Alzheimer disease (FAD) mutations have been mapped to the genes encoding PSEN1 or PSEN2 (http://www.molgen.ua.ac.be/ADMutations), pointing to a crucial role of the γ-secretase complexes in the disease. Apart from PSEN, a mature and active γ-secretase complex consists of three additional subunits: Nicastrin (Nct), PSEN enhancer 2 (Pen-2), and either anterior pharynx 1 (APH-1) A or B (for a review, see Tolia and De Strooper, 2009). The γ-secretase complexes proteolyse type 1 transmembrane proteins, among them the APP, the Notch receptors and ligands, the Erb4 receptor and N-Cadherin (Wakabayashi and De Strooper, 2008). As a rule, FAD PSEN mutations increase the relative amount of Aβ42 versus Aβ40 in in vivo and in vitro paradigms (Borchelt et al, 1996; Duff et al, 1996; Scheuner et al, 1996; Murayama et al, 1999), which led to propose that PSEN mutations act via a toxic gain-of-function mechanism. However, more refined analyses have made clear that the change in Aβ ratio does not necessarily reflect an increase in Aβ42 production, but can also be the consequence of a decrease in Aβ40 levels. Actually, many mutations reduce one or both products of the γ-secretase in steady-state conditions (Song et al, 1999; Bentahir et al, 2006; Shen and Kelleher, 2007; Shimojo et al, 2007; Heilig et al, 2010). These observations have led to an opposite hypothesis in which FAD mutations in PSEN cause dementia through a loss of function of γ-secretase, resulting in decreased proteolytic processing of different substrates and compromising intracellular signalling pathways (Shen and Kelleher, 2007; Kelleher and Shen, 2010). In fact, the current model for γ-secretase successive proteolysis (Takami et al, 2009) may link a loss of function to misprocessing of APP and abnormal generation of Aβ (De Strooper, 2007; Wolfe, 2007). However, the fact that less efficient proteolytic processing of APP may lead to alterations in the Aβ profile and AD is contraintuitive in the light of the classical amyloid hypothesis, which stresses the importance of quantitative accumulation of either total Aβ or Aβ42 (Hardy and Selkoe, 2002). Moreover, a recent report has shown that reduced γ-secretase activity does not increase the production (accumulation) of longer Aβ peptides (Quintero-Monzon et al, 2011). Importantly, the biophysical and biochemical properties of Aβ vary strongly with its length. Longer Aβ42 has a much stronger tendency to aggregate than the shorter Aβ40 (Jarrett and Lansbury, 1993; Jarrett et al, 1993). Furthermore, the relative ratio of Aβ40 to Aβ42 influences strongly the biological effects of the Aβ mixture in vitro and in vivo, even when total Aβ amounts are kept equal (Kuperstein et al, 2010). Whereas Aβ40 appears to act protectively in various toxicity assays (Wang et al, 2006; Kim et al, 2007), longer Aβ peptides promote aggregation and neurotoxicity (McGowan et al, 2005). In fact, it has been suggested that the ratio (Aβ42/Aβ40) is more important than the absolute amounts of Aβ42 (Tanzi and Bertram, 2005). Similar to Aβ42, Aβ43 is potently amyloidogenic and neurotoxic (Saito et al, 2011). While it is commonly found in AD brains (Welander et al, 2009), its potential relevance in disease was only recently addressed (Saito et al, 2011). Thus, qualitative changes in Aβ (De Strooper, 2007; Wolfe, 2007) are at least as important as the quantitative alterations proposed by the original amyloid hypothesis (Hardy and Selkoe, 2002). In contrast, the ‘simple’ loss-of-function hypothesis proposes that Aβ alterations are only an epiphenomenon of the PSEN mutations, and that inefficient cleavage of membrane proteins by γ-secretase complexes is the fundamental upstream cause of the neurodegenerative process (Shen and Kelleher, 2007; Kelleher and Shen, 2010). This hypothesis finds support in (a) experimental results with Psen knockout mice (Saura et al, 2004), where progressive neurodegeneration occurs without Aβ deposition, and (b) in three case reports in which missense mutations in PSEN genes displayed neurodegenerative clinical phenotypes but no Aβ accumulation (discussed in Shen and Kelleher, 2007; Kelleher and Shen, 2010). However, this last argument has been considerably weakened by follow-up studies showing that neurodegeneration was likely caused by a second mutation in the progranulin gene in one case (Boeve et al, 2006), whereas in a second case abundant amyloid deposition in the frontal lobe appeared at autopsy (for further discussion, see Bergmans and De Strooper, 2010). On the other hand, recent observations in patients suffering from familial acne inversa in China (Wang et al, 2010) and independently in Great Britain (Pink et al, 2011) raise doubts about the validity of the ‘simple’ γ-secretase loss-of-function hypothesis. This condition appears to be associated with the haploinsufficiency of γ-secretase subunit genes (Nicastrin, Pen2) and most likely involves a deficiency in Notch cell signalling. However, none of the acne-affected individuals had AD symptoms. These observations indicate that reduced γ-secretase activity is not sufficient to cause AD, although further follow-up studies in these families are needed. Alternative mechanisms for the loss-of-function hypothesis have been proposed over the years (for an overview, see De Strooper and Annaert, 2010). For instance, several reports indicate alterations in subcellular trafficking or turnover of selected membrane proteins (Wilson et al, 2004; Esselens et al, 2004) or defective acidification of phagolysosomal compartments associated with PSEN loss of function (Lee et al, 2010). In addition, disturbances in cellular Ca2+ homeostasis by direct effects on the Ca2+ leakage function of PSEN (Zhang et al, 2010) or indirect effects on Ca2+ signalling pathways (reviewed in Bezprozvanny and Mattson, 2008) have been associated to PSEN loss of function. However, these hypotheses do not provide an explanation for the mutations in APP and also do not take into account that all tested FAD mutations affect the prime function of PSEN, which is proteolysis. From this brief overview it is clear that further in-depth investigation of the effects of clinical mutations on the function and structure of γ-secretase is required, especially given the relevance of such analysis for further drug development. Addressing this important question implies multidisciplinary approaches, in which deep structural and functional studies dissect the mechanisms of FAD mutations. Solving the 3D-structure of the protease complex would allow studying how FAD mutations affect the structure, and possibly the function. However, this is a huge challenge as important technical and experimental barriers need to be overcome. On the other hand, dissecting γ-secretase activity by kinetic analysis can yield important mechanistic insights into how FAD mutants regulate enzyme function. In vitro reconstitution of γ-secretase activity has provided initial insights into the enzymatic mechanism. Ihara and co-workers have provided compelling evidence for sequential processing of substrates by γ-secretase (Sato et al, 2003; Qi-Takahara et al, 2005; Kakuda et al, 2006; Yagishita et al, 2008). The most direct evidence was the identification of particular tri- and tetra-peptides generated from the APP-CTF stub by the γ-secretase (Takami et al, 2009). Their model proposes that APP can be sequentially cut along two production lines: Aβ49>Aβ46>Aβ43>Aβ40 and Aβ48>Aβ45>Aβ42>Aβ38 (Figure 1A). Accordingly, the endoproteolytic activity (first ε-cleavage) releases the APP intracellular domain (AICD) and Aβ48 or Aβ49. These long Aβs are then shortened by consecutive carboxypeptidase-like γ-cleavages, which progressively decrease Aβ hydrophobicity and increase the probability of its release into the extracellular environment. In agreement, it has been shown that the endoproteolytic cleavage site determines the product line preference of the γ-secretase in vivo (Funamoto et al, 2004), and therefore the series of Aβ products. Also, presenilinase cleavage (the autocatalytic activation of PSEN) results in the generation of tripeptides in accordance with this model (Fukumori et al, 2010). The ε-cleavage in the APP substrate is analogous to the Notch S3 cleavage site (Sastre et al, 2001; Weidemann et al, 2002) and most likely other γ-secretase substrates are processed in similar ways. Figure 1.FAD–PSEN1 mutations do not consistently decrease the enzymatic efficiency of the endopeptidase cleavage. (A, B) Schematic overviews of APP processing and location of FAD–PSEN1 mutations used in the current study. (C) Expression levels of Nct, PSEN1–NTF, PSEN1–CTF and Pen-2 in Psen1/2−/− mEFs transduced with human wt or FAD–PSEN1 mutants using a replication-defective recombinant retroviral expression system (Clontech) and selected with puromycin (5 μg/ml). Western blotting and densitometric analysis of the CHAPSO-solubilized membrane proteins from the different PSEN1 cell lines indicate that wt and mutant PSEN1 rescued γ-secretase complex to similar extents. In order to determine specific activities for the wt or FAD complexes, γ-secretase activities were normalized to PSEN CTF fragment levels or full-length PS1 levels for the DE9 mutant. (D) Kinetic curves for wt and PS1–FAD mutants using purified APP-C99-3XFLAG or Notch-3XFLAG substrates (mean±s.e.) or (F) ErB4-3XFLAG and N-Cadherin-3XFLAG substrates (mean±s.d.). Detergent-extracted membranes were incubated in 0.25% CHAPSO reaction buffer with varying concentrations of purified substrate for 4 h at 37 °C. In vitro generated ICD-3XFLAG were analysed by quantitative western blot analysis (see Materials and methods). (E) FAD–PSEN1 ε-enzymatic efficiencies for APP-C99 and Notch substrates (mean±s.e.). Enzymatic efficiencies unequivocally demonstrate that loss of function at the ε-cleavage is not a constant among PSEN1 mutations. (G) FAD–PSEN1 mutations that did not affect the generation of NICD did not change significantly the processing of ErB4 (mean±s.d.) either. In contrast, N-Cadherin processing was significantly upregulated by the M139V (mean±s.d.). (E, G) Experiments were repeated 3–5 times. Statistical significance of the data was tested with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Dunnett's post test, taking the corresponding WT efficiency as control group, *P<0.05. Download figure Download PowerPoint In the current study, we used a cell-free assay to analyse how clinical mutations in PSEN1, PSEN2 and APP affect the activity of the γ-secretase complex. Dissection of the different activities of the γ-secretase complex allowed us to reach a coherent explanation for the effects of the tested FAD mutations. We coupled kinetic studies of the endopeptidase activity to the analysis of the carboxypeptidase-like cleavage to show that FAD mutations have widely variable effects on the efficiency of the first cleavage, which releases the intracellular signalling domains of substrates. This observation rules out an impairment in the endopeptidase (ε) mechanism as necessary for the pathological effect of FAD mutations. In contrast, all FAD PSEN and APP mutations alter the processing of APP, regulating the generation of Aβ by three different mechanisms. Results FAD–PS1 mutations do not consistently impair the endopeptidase activity of the γ-secretase We analysed the effects of FAD mutations PSEN1-Y115H, -M139V, -L166P, -I213T, -G384A and delta-exon9 (DE9) on the kinetic constants of the ε-cleavage of APP, Notch, ErB4 and N-Cadherin substrates. The selected mutations are spread throughout the PSEN1 primary sequence (Figure 1B). Importantly, blockage by the transition state analogue L-685,458 (TSA, InhX) demonstrated the specificity of the assays (Supplementary Figure 1A). To determine the kinetic constants of wt and FAD γ-secretase complexes, we used CHAPSO-extracted membranes from Psen1/2−/−, rescued with wt or FAD-mutant PSEN1 as source of enzyme (Figure 1C) and purified APP C99–3XFlag, Notch–3XFlag, Erb4–3XFlag or N-Cadherin–3XFlag as substrates. The kinetic data fit the Michaelis–Menten reaction curves (Figure 1D and F), and Km (affinity constant) as well as Vmax (maximal velocity) were determined (Table I). Since γ-secretase activities are normalized to enzyme levels, Vmax can be taken as kcat and enzymatic efficiencies calculated as kcat/Km. The results reveal diverse effects of the FAD–PSEN1 mutations on this important kinetic parameter. Y115H, L166P and G384A mutants decrease γ-secretase efficiencies by 75% for both APP and Notch, while I213T and DE9 only affect APP, and M139V does not show any effect on the ε-cleavage (Figure 1E). Moreover, FAD–PSEN1 mutations that do not affect Notch endoproteolysis do not impair ErB4 cleavage either, while only the M139V significantly increases the processing of N-Cadherin (Figure 1G). Thus, the tested FAD–PSEN1 mutations have no consistent inhibitory effect on the endoproteolytic cleavage of γ-secretase substrates, indicating that reduced release of intracellular domains and signalling cannot explain their AD-causing effects. Table 1. Kinetic parameters for human PSEN1 γ-secretase complexes using APP-C99, Notch, ErB4 or N-Cadherin as substrates APP-C99 substrate Notch substrate Erb4 substrate N-Cadherin substrate Km±s.e., μM Vmax±s.e., pM/min Km±s.e., μM Vmax±s.e., pM/min Km±s.d., μM Vmax±s.d., pM/min Km±s.d., μM Vmax±s.d., pM/min PS1 wt 0.40±0.05 175.6±8.4 1.08±0.17 95.7±7.5 0.31±0.07 37.72±6.18 1.46±0.36 88.37±10.95 Y115H 0.81±0.18 113.3±11.3a 3.92±1.97 86.49±31.4 — — — — M139V 0.27±0.04a 144.5±6.8a 1.78±0.21a 146.9±10.1a 0.40±0.23 39.76±6.36 0.42±0.19a 71.16±20.14 L166P 0.43±0.07 74.03±4.2a 0.97±0.2 23.76±2.4a — — — — I213T 0.73±0.18 151.1±14.7 1.26±0.26 106.1±11.2 0.45±0.13 58.68±5.83a 1.02±0.11 74.95±11.76 DeltaE9 0.82±0.18a 133.5±13.5a 0.67±0.24 42.8±6.5a 0.33±0.06 40.84±8.12 1.70±0.43 21.97±8.39a G384A 0.92±0.18 93.87±8.7a 1.85±0.42 71.04±9.5 — — — — Kinetic values are derived from the curves displayed in Figure 1 and were determined by nonlinear curve-fitting using GraphPad Prism 4 software (see Material and methods section). a Significant changes according to the 95% CI (P<0.05). In vitro activity assays were performed using CHAPSO-extracted membranes from Psen1/2−/− mEFs stably transduced with human wt or FAD PSEN1 mutants and purified substrates-3XFlag, n⩾. FAD–PSEN mutations impair the fourth γ-secretase cleavage in both product lines Next, we asked whether FAD–PSEN1 mutations lead to APP misprocessing at the γ-cleavage sites. We use Ihara's model (see Introduction) for further description of our work since it explains very well our observations. Kinetic analysis of the carboxypeptidase-like activity is challenging to perform since controlling substrate concentrations, that is, the intermediary Aβ products, is experimentally not possible yet. Nevertheless, we measured two γ-products in each production line: Aβ43, Aβ42, Aβ40 and Aβ38 (Figure 1A) at saturating APP-substrate concentration. Thus, substrates (Aβ43 and Aβ42) and products (Aβ40 and Aβ38) of the fourth γ-secretase cleavage in both pathways are analysed and provide a relative number for the γ-cleavage efficiency. Importantly, as some of the clinical mutants affect the ε-cleavage, we normalized the Aβ product levels (Aβ38, Aβ40, Aβ42 or Aβ43) towards total AICD (Figure 2A and B). AICD reflects the total initial Aβ substrate (Aβ49+Aβ48) produced and processed in each reaction. Low Aβ40 and Aβ38 levels and high, long Aβ levels (>Aβ42) are found in all the FAD-linked mutations tested, including the M139V, which does not affect the ε-efficiency. Interestingly, the M139V mutation affects the processing of APP only at the level of Aβ, indicating that endo- and carboxypeptidase-like activities of the γ-secretase can be dissociated. Figure 2.FAD–PSEN1 mutations impair the fourth enzymatic turnover. AICD levels (moles per min) generated by the wt or FAD mutant complexes (A) were used to normalize Aβ products (moles per min) in order to determine accurately Aβ generation relative to C99 substrate. Aβ profiles (B) thus represent Aβ products corrected for the initial endoprotease activities, plotted as percentage of the wt Aβ products (mean±s.e.). Soluble Aβ (sum of Aβ38, Aβ40, Aβ42 and Aβ43 peptides) gives information about the efficiency of the γ-cleavages: lower levels (<100%, grey box) suggest that longer peptides (>Aβ43) accumulate in the reactions. (C) In agreement with the ELISA quantifications, total Aβ analysed in urea-based gels show increments in Aβ42 and Aβ43, and reductions in Aβ40 and Aβ38 in FAD–PSEN1 mutations, relative to wt. (*) Indicates a non product band that is present in the C99 substrate (see Supplementary Figure 2). (D) Aβ product/substrate ratios determined in vitro for the FAD–PSEN1 mutations show an impairment at the fourth γ-secretase turnover (mean±s.e.). Experiments in (B) and (D) were repeated 4–6 times. Statistical significance of the data tested with one-way ANOVA and Dunnett's post test taking the corresponding WT as control group; *P<0.05, **P<0.01. (E) Aβ product/substrate ratios determined in vivo confirm impairment at the fourth enzymatic cycle: wt or FAD–PSEN1 mEF cell lines were transiently transduced with APPswe, extracellular media collected at 24