Oxidative stress plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis including the formation of lipid laden macrophages and the development of inflammation. However, oxidative stress-induced molecular signaling that regulates the development of vascular calcification has not been investigated in depth. Osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) is critical in the development of calcification in atherosclerotic lesions. An important contributor to oxidative stress in atherosclerotic lesions is the formation of hydrogen peroxide from diverse sources in vascular cells. In this study we defined molecular signaling that is operative in the H2O2-induced VSMC calcification. We found that H2O2 promotes a phenotypic switch of VSMC from contractile to osteogenic phenotype. This response was associated with an increased expression and transactivity of Runx2, a key transcription factor for osteogenic differentiation. The essential role of Runx2 in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification was further confirmed by Runx2 depletion and overexpression. Inhibition of Runx2 using short hairpin RNA blocked VSMC calcification, and adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Runx2 alone induced VSMC calcification. Inhibition of H2O2-activated AKT signaling blocked VSMC calcification and Runx2 induction concurrently. This blockage did not cause VSMC apoptosis. Taken together, our data demonstrate a critical role for AKT-mediated induction of Runx2 in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. Oxidative stress plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis including the formation of lipid laden macrophages and the development of inflammation. However, oxidative stress-induced molecular signaling that regulates the development of vascular calcification has not been investigated in depth. Osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) is critical in the development of calcification in atherosclerotic lesions. An important contributor to oxidative stress in atherosclerotic lesions is the formation of hydrogen peroxide from diverse sources in vascular cells. In this study we defined molecular signaling that is operative in the H2O2-induced VSMC calcification. We found that H2O2 promotes a phenotypic switch of VSMC from contractile to osteogenic phenotype. This response was associated with an increased expression and transactivity of Runx2, a key transcription factor for osteogenic differentiation. The essential role of Runx2 in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification was further confirmed by Runx2 depletion and overexpression. Inhibition of Runx2 using short hairpin RNA blocked VSMC calcification, and adenovirus-mediated overexpression of Runx2 alone induced VSMC calcification. Inhibition of H2O2-activated AKT signaling blocked VSMC calcification and Runx2 induction concurrently. This blockage did not cause VSMC apoptosis. Taken together, our data demonstrate a critical role for AKT-mediated induction of Runx2 in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. Atherosclerosis is characterized by the presence of atherosclerotic lesions in the arterial intima that leads to narrowing of the vessel lumen. Vascular calcification, the presence of calcium deposits in the vessel wall, is a feature of advanced atherosclerosis and reduces elasticity and compliance of the vessel wall (1Trion A. van der L.A. Am. Heart J. 2004; 147: 808-814Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar). Hence, the extent of calcification is a key risk factor in the pathogenesis of the disease. Several cell types, such as endothelium, monocytes, and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), 5The abbreviations used are: VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; Col I, type I collagen; OC, osteocalcin; Runx2, runt-related transcription factor 2; α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; SRF, serum response factor; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; shRNA, short hairpin RNA; Ad-Runx2, adenovirus encoding murine wild-type Runx2; ERK, extracellular-regulated kinase; PLC, phospholipase C; p-, phosphorylated; GFP, green fluorescent protein; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. 5The abbreviations used are: VSMC, vascular smooth muscle cells; ROS, reactive oxygen species; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; Col I, type I collagen; OC, osteocalcin; Runx2, runt-related transcription factor 2; α-SMA, α-smooth muscle actin; SRF, serum response factor; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; shRNA, short hairpin RNA; Ad-Runx2, adenovirus encoding murine wild-type Runx2; ERK, extracellular-regulated kinase; PLC, phospholipase C; p-, phosphorylated; GFP, green fluorescent protein; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. are involved in different stages of lesion development. VSMC contribute to the development of atherosclerotic lesions through increased migration, proliferation, secretion of matrix components, osteogenic differentiation, and the associated calcification (1Trion A. van der L.A. Am. Heart J. 2004; 147: 808-814Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar). During this process, the differentiated VSMC undergo de-differentiation, and subsequently osteogenic transition that results in vascular calcification (2Hayashi K. Nakamura S. Nishida W. Sobue K. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2006; 26: 9456-9470Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar). Many factors that have been linked to an increased prevalence of vascular calcification are associated with elevated oxidative stress, including hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and dialysis-dependent end stage renal disease (3Witztum J.L. Lancet. 1994; 344: 793-795Abstract PubMed Scopus (1258) Google Scholar, 4Schmidt A.M. Hori O. Chen J.X. Li J.F. Crandall J. Zhang J. Cao R. Yan S.D. Brett J. 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Upon stimulation, these oxidases in the endothelium, media, and adventitia can produce H2O2 and contribute to increased exposure of VSMC to this oxidant (10Ardanaz N. Pagano P.J. Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood). 2006; 231: 237-251Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar, 14Cseko C. Bagi Z. Koller A. J. Appl. Physiol. 2004; 97: 1130-1137Crossref PubMed Scopus (60) Google Scholar). VSMC exhibit an extraordinary capacity to undergo phenotypic change during development in cultures and in association with diseases (15Iyemere V.P. Proudfoot D. Weissberg P.L. Shanahan C.M. J. Intern. Med. 2006; 260: 192-210Crossref PubMed Scopus (190) Google Scholar). Emerging evidence supports the concept that vascular calcification, like mineralization of bones and teeth, is a cell-regulated process (16Steitz S.A. Speer M.Y. Curinga G. Yang H.Y. Haynes P. Aebersold R. Schinke T. Karsenty G. Giachelli C.M. Circ. Res. 2001; 89: 1147-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (683) Google Scholar). Osteogenic differentiation of VSMC is characterized by the expression of multiple bone-related molecules including alkaline phosphatase (ALP), type I collagen (Col I) and osteocalcin (OC) and the formation of mineralized bone-like structures (17Collin-Osdoby P. Circ. Res. 2004; 95: 1046-1057Crossref PubMed Scopus (404) Google Scholar). During osteoblast differentiation these molecules are expressed at different phases and reflect different aspects of osteoblast function and bone formation. ALP and Col I are early markers, and OC is a late marker (18Stinson R.A. Hamilton B.A. Clin. Biochem. 1994; 27: 49-55Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar, 19Pagani F. Francucci C.M. Moro L. J. Endocrinol. Investig. 2005; 28: 8-13Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 20Gallop P.M. Lian J.B. Hauschka P.V. N. Engl. J. Med. 1980; 302: 1460-1466Crossref PubMed Scopus (185) Google Scholar). Runx2 is a key transcription factor that regulates osteoblast (21Ducy P. Zhang R. Geoffroy V. Ridall A.L. Karsenty G. Cell. 1997; 89: 747-754Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3630) Google Scholar) and chondrocyte differentiation (22Inada M. Yasui T. Nomura S. Miyake S. Deguchi K. Himeno M. Sato M. Yamagiwa H. Kimura T. Yasui N. Ochi T. Endo N. Kitamura Y. Kishimoto T. Komori T. Dev. Dyn. 1999; 214: 279-290Crossref PubMed Scopus (505) Google Scholar). Runx2 has been shown to induce ALP activity and the expression of bone matrix protein genes, including OC, Col I, bone sialoprotein, and osteopontin, as well as mineralization in immature mesenchymal cells and osteoblastic cells in vitro (21Ducy P. Zhang R. Geoffroy V. Ridall A.L. Karsenty G. Cell. 1997; 89: 747-754Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3630) Google Scholar, 23Lian J.B. Javed A. Zaidi S.K. Lengner C. Montecino M. van Wijnen A.J. Stein J.L. Stein G.S. Crit. Rev. Eukaryot. Gene Expression. 2004; 14: 1-41Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Runx2 expression has been identified in atherosclerotic calcified human vascular tissue specimens (24Engelse M.A. Neele J.M. Bronckers A.L. Pannekoek H. de Vries C.J. Cardiovasc. Res. 2001; 52: 281-289Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 25Aikawa E. Nahrendorf M. Sosnovik D. Lok V.M. Jaffer F.A. Aikawa M. Weissleder R. Circulation. 2007; 115: 377-386Crossref PubMed Scopus (313) Google Scholar, 26Tyson K.L. Reynolds J.L. McNair R. Zhang Q. Weissberg P.L. Shanahan C.M. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2003; 23: 489-494Crossref PubMed Scopus (434) Google Scholar) and in calcifying aortic smooth muscle cells in mice (16Steitz S.A. Speer M.Y. Curinga G. Yang H.Y. Haynes P. Aebersold R. Schinke T. Karsenty G. Giachelli C.M. Circ. Res. 2001; 89: 1147-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (683) Google Scholar) but not in normal vessels. Furthermore, increased expression of Runx2 is associated with VSMC calcification in vitro (16Steitz S.A. Speer M.Y. Curinga G. Yang H.Y. Haynes P. Aebersold R. Schinke T. Karsenty G. Giachelli C.M. Circ. Res. 2001; 89: 1147-1154Crossref PubMed Scopus (683) Google Scholar, 27Mori K. Shioi A. Jono S. Nishizawa Y. Morii H. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 1999; 19: 2112-2118Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar, 28Chen N.X. Duan D. O'Neill K.D. Wolisi G.O. Koczman J.J. Laclair R. Moe S.M. Kidney Int. 2006; 70: 1046-1053Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (105) Google Scholar), supporting a role for Runx2 in vascular calcification. However, the potential link between Runx2 regulation and oxidative stress-induced vascular calcification has not been examined. In the present study we hypothesized that H2O2 regulates VSMC calcification through modulation of the activity and expression of Runx2. Using a cell culture model we found that Runx2 is essential for H2O2-induced VSMC calcification. This oxidative stress-activated Runx2 response is in turn dependent on the activation of AKT. Taken together these studies demonstrate for the first time key steps in the redox cell signaling pathways that lead to VSMC calcification and the essential role of Runx2 in this process. VSMC Culture—Primary VSMC used in the present studies were isolated from the aortas of C57BL/6 mice (29Chen Y. Kelm Jr., R.J. Budd R.C. Sobel B.E. Schneider D.J. J. Cell. Biochem. 2004; 92: 178-188Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar, 30Chen Y. Budd R.C. Kelm Jr., R.J. Sobel B.E. Schneider D.J. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2006; 26: 1777-1783Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar) and confirmed by flow cytometry with the use of smooth muscle specific α-actin antibody (α-SMA). All experiments were performed with VSMC at passages 3-5. In Vitro Calcification—Calcification of VSMC was induced by the addition of H2O2 in osteogenic media containing 0.25 mml-ascorbic acid, 10 mm β-glycerophosphate, and 10-8m dexamethasone (Sigma-Aldrich) for 3 weeks. Alternatively, cells were incubated with glucose oxidase (2 or 5 milliunits/ml) for 12 h with media changes every 2-3 days. Mineralization was determined by von Kossa staining as previously described (31Wada T. McKee M.D. Steitz S. Giachelli C.M. Circ. Res. 1999; 84: 166-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (401) Google Scholar). Briefly, cells were fixed by 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline for 15 min and washed with deionized water 3 times. After adding 5% silver nitrate (Sigma-Aldrich) in deionized water, plates were placed on aluminum foil under a 60-watt white lamp until the calcium phosphate turned black. Plates were washed with deionized water 3 times, and 5% sodium thiosulfate (Sigma-Aldrich) was added for 5 min to remove unreacted silver. Mineralized nodules were quantified by attaching the culture dish to a grid ruled in 2-mm squares and viewing the cultures through an inverted microscope at a magnification of 40× in five randomly selected fields as described (32Sprague S.M. Krieger N.S. Bushinsky D.A. Am. J. Physiol. 1993; 264: F882-F890PubMed Google Scholar). The roles of mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase, phospholipase C (PLC), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathways in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification were determined with inhibitors, including PD98059, U73122, LY294002, and AKT Inhibitor IV (Calbiochem). Total Calcium Measurement—Cells were lysed with 0.5 n HCl by shaking overnight at room temperature. Total calcium in the cell lysates was determined by Arsenazo III (Sigma-Aldrich). Reverse Transcriptase-Polymerase Chain Reaction and Real-time PCR Analysis—The effect of oxidative stress on the expression of bone-related and smooth muscle-specific gene markers was determined by RT-PCR and real-time PCR. Total RNA was isolated from VSMC using Trizol (Invitrogen) and reverse-transcribed into cDNA. PCR were performed using specific primers for murine ALP (33Qu Q. Perala-Heape M. Kapanen A. Dahllund J. Salo J. Vaananen H.K. Harkonen P. Bone (NY). 1998; 22: 201-209Crossref PubMed Scopus (222) Google Scholar), Col IA1 (34Nakamura A. Ly C. Cipetic M. Sims N.A. Vieusseux J. Kartsogiannis V. Bouralexis S. Saleh H. Zhou H. Price J.T. Martin T.J. Ng K.W. Gillespie M.T. Quinn J.M. Bone (NY). 2007; 40: 305-315Crossref PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar), OC (35Cool S.M. Nurcombe V. Stem Cells Dev. 2005; 14: 632-642Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar), Runx2 (36Ishida K. Yamaguchi M. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2005; 16: 689-694PubMed Google Scholar), α-SMA (37Nakagami H. 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SYBR Green-based real time PCR was performed in a 96-well plate format using SYBR Premix Ex Taq (TaKaRa) on an iCycler Thermal Cycler (Bio-Rad). Western Blot Analysis—VSMC cell extracts were prepared, and protein concentration was measured as described previously (29Chen Y. Kelm Jr., R.J. Budd R.C. Sobel B.E. Schneider D.J. J. Cell. Biochem. 2004; 92: 178-188Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar, 30Chen Y. Budd R.C. Kelm Jr., R.J. Sobel B.E. Schneider D.J. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2006; 26: 1777-1783Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar). Western blot analyses were performed with the use of specific antibodies for extracellular-regulated kinase (ERK), p-ERK, PLCγ, p-PLCγ, AKT, p-AKT (Cell Signaling), and Runx2 (Calbiochem) and detected with a Western blot chemiluminescence detection kit (Millipore). Detection of Runx2 Transactivity—Runx2 transactivity was determined by a Dual-Luciferase Reporter assay with the use of p6xRunxLuc, a luciferase reporter construct containing six Runx binding elements in the promoter region (41Ducy P. Karsenty G. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1995; 15: 1858-1869Crossref PubMed Scopus (521) Google Scholar). VSMC were seeded in 6-well plates and transiently transfected with 1 μg of p6xRunxLuc using FuGENE 6 (Roche Applied Science). A plasmid encoding Renilla luciferase gene downstream of a minimal SV40 promoter was used to normalize for transfection efficiency (42Chen Y. Billadello J.J. Schneider D.J. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2000; 20: 2696-2701Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar). 24 h after transfection VSMC were washed and treated with 0.4 mm H2O2 for an additional 24 or 48 h. Luciferase activities were determined with the Dual-Luciferase assay kit (Promega). Lentiviral shRNA Transduction for VSMC—Five lentiviral vectors expressing a 21-nucleotide Runx2 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) were purchased from Open Biosystems. The expression of shRNA is driven by a human U6 promoter followed by puromycin driven by human phosphoglycerate kinase promoter. Each vector was packed into lentivirus-like particles pseudotyped with the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein as previously described (43Wu X. Wakefield J.K. Liu H. Xiao H. Kralovics R. Prchal J.T. Kappes J.C. Mol. Ther. 2000; 2: 47-55Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (117) Google Scholar). The position of each of the core 21-nucleotide sequences targeted nucleotides was 4765-4785 (#1), 1664-1684 (#2), 1231-1251 (#3), 1757-1777 (#4), and 131-151 (#5), of the murine Runx2 gene (GenBank™ accession number NM_009820). Blast search was performed using the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Expressed Sequence Tags (EST) data base to ensure that the shRNA construct only targeted murine Runx2. Transduction was performed by incubating VSMC with recombinant lentiviral vector in growth media supplemented with 10 μg/ml diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-dextran. After 24 h cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline and cultured in growth media containing 5 μg/ml puromycin for 2 weeks to select stable expression transfectants, which were further cultured in osteogenic media for 3 weeks to induce calcification. Adenovirus-mediated Transduction of Runx2—Adenovirus encoding murine wild-type Runx2 (Ad-Runx2) was kindly provided by Dr. Renny Franceschi (University of Michigan) (44Zhao Z. Zhao M. Xiao G. Franceschi R.T. Mol. Ther. 2005; 12: 247-253Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar), and transduction of adenovirus into VSMC was performed as we previously described (30Chen Y. Budd R.C. Kelm Jr., R.J. Sobel B.E. Schneider D.J. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2006; 26: 1777-1783Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar). Briefly, VSMC grown in six-well plates were infected with Ad-Runx2 at different multiplicities of infection for 2 h in serum-free media and 16 h in serum-containing media. Subsequently, cells were cultured in osteogenic media for 3 weeks. Assessment of Apoptosis—To examine the effect of oxidative stress or AKT inhibition on VSMC apoptosis, annexin V and propidium iodine staining were performed with the annexin V-FITC apoptosis detection kit (BD Biosciences) as we previously described (45Chen Y. Xu J. Jhala N. Pawar P. Zhu Z.B. Ma L. Byon C.H. McDonald J.M. Am. J. Pathol. 2006; 169: 1833-1842Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (40) Google Scholar). Apoptosis was reported as the percentage of annexin V-positive and propidium iodine-negative cells. Statistical Analysis—Results are expressed as the means ± S.D. Differences between two groups were identified with Studentʼns t tests. Significance was defined as p < 0.05. Hydrogen Peroxide Induces VSMC Calcification—First, we examined the effect of H2O2 added directly to the cells or generated at a low flux from the enzyme glucose oxidase (46Fernandes R. Ramalho J. Pereira P. Mol. Vis. 2006; 12: 1526-1535PubMed Google Scholar) on in vitro calcification of VSMC. We found that glucose oxidase or H2O2 at the non-toxic concentrations of 0.1-0.4 mm induced VSMC calcification in concentration-dependent manners, as indicated by the black granule formation after von Kossa staining (Fig. 1, A and B) or total calcium levels (Fig. 1C). Taken together, these results establish an in vitro oxidative stress-induced differentiation and calcification of VSMC model in vitro. Oxidative Stress Induces the Expression of Bone Markers and Down-regulates Smooth Muscle Cell Markers—Accumulating evidence supports the concept that vascular calcification resembles the process of osteogenesis (47Towler D.A. Shao J.S. Cheng S.L. Pingsterhaus J.M. Loewy A.P. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006; 1068: 327-333Crossref PubMed Scopus (82) Google Scholar, 48Bostrom K. Watson K.E. Stanford W.P. Demer L.L. Am. J. Cardiol. 1995; 75: 88-91Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar). Therefore, we determined the effect of oxidative stress on osteogenic transdifferentiation of VSMC and examined the expression of bone and VSMC markers. The expression of bone markers ALP, Col IA1, and OC was dramatically increased in H2O2-treated cultures (Fig. 2A). In contrast, the expression of VSMC markers α-SMA and SM22α decreased gradually during the osteogenic differentiation of VSMC (Fig. 2A). Real-time PCR was performed, which confirmed increased expression of ALP, OC, and Col IA1 after VSMC were exposed to 0.4 mm H2O2 for 10 days (fold increase: ALP = 8.7 ± 1.2, OC = 5.3 ± 1.4, and Col IA1 = 6.6 ± 0.9, compared with control, Fig. 2B). On the other hand, the expression of α-SMA was decreased by 79% and SM22α by 83% after VSMC were exposed to 0.4 mm H2O2 for 10 days (Fig. 2C). These results demonstrated that induction of bone markers and loss of smooth muscle cell-specific phenotypes is associated with oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. Oxidative Stress Increases Runx2 Expression and Transactivity in VSMC—The transcription factor Runx2 is a key regulator of osteoblast differentiation which regulates the expression of many bone markers (21Ducy P. Zhang R. Geoffroy V. Ridall A.L. Karsenty G. Cell. 1997; 89: 747-754Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (3630) Google Scholar). Thus, we determined whether H2O2 affects the expression and transactivity of Runx2 during VSMC calcification. We found that H2O2 increased the expression of the Runx2 transcript (Fig. 3A). This result was further confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR, demonstrating a 4.5-fold increase in Runx2 mRNA after VSMC were exposed to H2O2 for 10 days (Fig. 3B). To test if the H2O2-induced increase in Runx2 message was translated to the protein level, Western blot analysis was performed. Expression of Runx2 protein was increased in VSMC exposed to H2O2 for 2 and 3 weeks (Fig. 3C). To determine whether H2O2-induced Runx2 protein was transcriptionally active, a luciferase reporter assay was performed. A multimerized Runx2 promoter reporter was transiently transfected into VSMC, which was subsequently stimulated with H2O2 (Fig. 3D). A 2-fold increase in Runx2 transactivity was observed at 24 and 48 h after VSMC was exposed to H2O2. These results suggest that H2O2-increased Runx2 expression and transactivity may contribute to oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. Down-regulation of Runx2 Inhibits VSMC Calcification—For a mechanistic understanding of H2O2-induced Runx2 expression and VSMC calcification, we employed shRNA-containing lentiviral vectors to knock down the expression of Runx2. Five lentiviral vectors from Open Biosystems were tested, and the one that knocked down Runx2 protein most effectively was selected for further studies. As expected, VSMC infected with a control virus (lenti-GFP) underwent calcification when treated with H2O2 (Fig. 4A). By contrast, H2O2-induced calcification was inhibited when Runx2 was knocked down (Fig. 4A). We confirmed that the expression of Runx2 was inhibited by shRNA (Fig. 4B), and inhibition of calcification was correlated with reduced levels of Runx2 (Fig. 4, A and B). Thus, our data support an essential direct role of Runx2 in oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. To determine whether Runx2 knockdown may affect H2O2-induced expression of bone-related molecules and down-regulation of VSMC markers, we compared the expression of those marker genes in control and Runx2 knockdown VSMC. Increased expression of ALP and Col IA1 by H2O2 was totally blocked in Runx2 knockdown VSMC (Fig. 4B). Real-time PCR confirmed the down-regulation of bone-related molecules in Runx2 knockdown VSMC exposed to H2O2 (Fig. 4C). We found that the expression of VSMC transcription factors myocardin and SRF was decreased after VSMC were exposed to H2O2 for 2 weeks (Fig. 4B). The inhibitory effect of H2O2 on the expression of transcription factors was not restored in Runx2 knockdown cells, which was confirmed by real-time PCR analysis (Fig. 4D). Furthermore, H2O2-inhibited expression of SMC marker genes was not totally rescued by Runx2 knockdown, suggesting that additional signaling pathways independent of Runx2 may regulate H2O2-inhibited expression VSMC markers. Overexpression of Runx2 Increases VSMC Calcification—To verify if that Runx2 alone is sufficient to induce VSMC calcification, we overexpressed Runx2 in VSMC by adenovirus carrying the Runx2 gene (44Zhao Z. Zhao M. Xiao G. Franceschi R.T. Mol. Ther. 2005; 12: 247-253Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (134) Google Scholar). Western blot analysis revealed that control VSMC expressed barely detectable levels of Runx2 protein. In contrast, Ad-Runx2-infected cells showed a concentration-dependent increase in Runx2 levels (Fig. 5A). VSMC calcification was enhanced by Ad-Runx2 with maximal induction of mineralization observed at a 200 multiplicity of infection (Fig. 5B), whereas VSMC calcification was not affected in VSMC transduced with control virus (Ad-GFP). These results demonstrate that Runx2 is an essential and sufficient player in regulating oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification. PI3K/AKT Signaling Mediates Oxidative Stress-induced Runx2 Activation and VSMC Calcification—H2O2 has been implicated in the activation of many downstream signaling pathways, including PI3K, ERK, and AKT, in a variety of cells (8Martindale J.L. Holbrook N.J. J. Cell. Physiol. 2002; 192: 1-15Crossref PubMed Scopus (1930) Google Scholar, 9Cai H. Cardiovasc. Res. 2005; 68: 26-36Crossref PubMed Scopus (466) Google Scholar). Thus, we determined whether activation of these signaling pathways by H2O2 was required for VSMC calcification. We found that H2O2 stimulated rapid activation of ERK, AKT, and PLCγ, an important mediator for intracellular calcium signaling, with maximal induction at 15 min (Fig. 6A). Inhibition of MAPK kinase by PD98059 (0.1-100 μm) or PLC by U73122 (0.1-10 μm) did not affect H2O2-induced VSMC calcification (data not shown). However, inhibition of AKT signaling by LY294002 and AKT inhibitor IV potently prevented oxidative stress-induced VSMC calcification (Fig. 6B). The effects of these inhibitors on AKT activation was confirmed by Western blot analysis, demonstrating inhibition of p-AKT in VSMC exposed to these inhibitors (Fig. 6B). Furthermore, we found that increased expression of Runx2, ALP, and Col IA1 under oxidative stress was blocked by AKT inhibition, whereas H2O2-induced down-regulation of α-SMA was not restored by AKT inhibition (Fig. 6C). Inhibition of oxidative stress-induced Runx2 transactivity was also demonstrated with AKT inhibitor IV (Fig. 6D). In addition, the effect of oxidative stress or AKT inhibition on VSMC calcification was not due to increased apoptosis (Fig. 6E). In summary, our data demonstrate that Runx2 is an integral component of oxidative stress-induced calcification of VSMC, and AKT signaling plays an important role in mediating oxidative stre