Article23 July 2009free access PARP is activated at stalled forks to mediate Mre11-dependent replication restart and recombination Helen E Bryant Helen E Bryant The Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Search for more papers by this author Eva Petermann Eva Petermann Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Search for more papers by this author Niklas Schultz Niklas Schultz Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Ann-Sofie Jemth Ann-Sofie Jemth Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Olga Loseva Olga Loseva Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Natalia Issaeva Natalia Issaeva Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Fredrik Johansson Fredrik Johansson Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Serena Fernandez Serena Fernandez The Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Search for more papers by this author Peter McGlynn Peter McGlynn School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK Search for more papers by this author Thomas Helleday Corresponding Author Thomas Helleday Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Helen E Bryant Helen E Bryant The Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Search for more papers by this author Eva Petermann Eva Petermann Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Search for more papers by this author Niklas Schultz Niklas Schultz Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Ann-Sofie Jemth Ann-Sofie Jemth Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Olga Loseva Olga Loseva Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Natalia Issaeva Natalia Issaeva Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Fredrik Johansson Fredrik Johansson Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Serena Fernandez Serena Fernandez The Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Search for more papers by this author Peter McGlynn Peter McGlynn School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK Search for more papers by this author Thomas Helleday Corresponding Author Thomas Helleday Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Search for more papers by this author Author Information Helen E Bryant1,‡, Eva Petermann2,‡, Niklas Schultz3,‡, Ann-Sofie Jemth3, Olga Loseva3, Natalia Issaeva3, Fredrik Johansson3, Serena Fernandez1, Peter McGlynn4 and Thomas Helleday 2,3 1The Institute for Cancer Studies, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK 2Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK 3Department of Genetics Microbiology and Toxicology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden 4School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK ‡These authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding author. Gray Institute for Radiation Oncology and Biology, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK. Tel.: +44 1865 617 324; Fax: +44 1865 857 127; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2009)28:2601-2615https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2009.206 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info If replication forks are perturbed, a multifaceted response including several DNA repair and cell cycle checkpoint pathways is activated to ensure faithful DNA replication. Here, we show that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) binds to and is activated by stalled replication forks that contain small gaps. PARP1 collaborates with Mre11 to promote replication fork restart after release from replication blocks, most likely by recruiting Mre11 to the replication fork to promote resection of DNA. Both PARP1 and PARP2 are required for hydroxyurea-induced homologous recombination to promote cell survival after replication blocks. Together, our data suggest that PARP1 and PARP2 detect disrupted replication forks and attract Mre11 for end processing that is required for subsequent recombination repair and restart of replication forks. Introduction Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is an abundant nuclear protein that is activated by DNA-strand breaks; activation of PARP1 leads to automodification and modification of other acceptor proteins with poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR) polymers (Satoh and Lindahl, 1992). PARP1 protects DNA breaks and chromatin structure and recruits DNA repair and checkpoint proteins to sites of damage (Allinson et al, 2003; Ahel et al, 2008). Inhibition of PARP1 is synthetic lethal with defects in homologous recombination (HR) and is currently being tested as a monotherapy for heritable breast and ovarian cancers deficient in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes (Bryant et al, 2005; Farmer et al, 2005; Helleday et al, 2008). PARP2, another nuclear member of the PARP family with largely unknown function, shares homology with PARP1 and is also activated by DNA breaks (Ame et al, 1999). Embryonic knockout of either PARP1 or PARP2 is well tolerated; however, double knockout is embryonic lethal (Menissier de Murcia et al, 2003) suggesting that PARP1 and PARP2 can compensate for some of each other's functions. PARP activity has been found to be enhanced in replicating cells (Lehmann et al, 1974), in the vicinity of replication forks (Jump et al, 1979) and in newly replicated chromatin (Anachkova et al, 1989). In addition, PARP1 has been shown to interact with several DNA replication proteins, many of which were poly(ADP-ribosyl)ated (Simbulan et al, 1993; Simbulan-Rosenthal et al, 1996; Dantzer et al, 1998). It has, therefore, been postulated that PARP1 might be involved in mammalian DNA replication. After treatment with hydroxyurea (HU), which stalls replication forks by depleting dNTP pools, PARP-1−/− cells have been shown to display delayed progress from S into G2/M phase (Yang et al, 2004), and although the underlying molecular mechanisms are not yet clear, a role for PARP1 in the response to replication fork stalling has been suggested. The PARP proteins are unique to higher eukaryotes and there is no evidence of PARP activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae or prokaryotes. Regulation of DNA replication has been recognised as an important mechanism for preventing carcinogenesis, as impaired replication fork progression and increased replication-dependent DNA damage were observed in early stages of tumour development (Bartkova et al, 2006; Di Micco et al, 2006). In particular, the efficient reactivation of stalled replication forks is considered essential to maintain faithful replication and genomic stability. In Escherichia coli, stalled or collapsed replication forks are reactivated by recombination-dependent or -independent pathways, catalysed by the RuvABC or PriA and PriC proteins, respectively (Heller and Marians, 2006). These proteins are not conserved in eukaryotes, and eukaryotic mechanisms of replication fork reactivation are not well characterised. In yeast, HU-induced fork stalling is reversible and forks only collapse in certain backgrounds, for example rad53 mutants (Lopes et al, 2001); it is only in those backgrounds that HR is triggered for repair (Meister et al, 2005). This is in contrast to higher eukaryotes, in which HU triggers HR directly in wild-type mammalian cells (Arnaudeau et al, 2001; Saintigny et al, 2001; Lundin et al, 2002), suggesting that recombination-dependent replication restart mechanisms might be important in higher eukaryotes. Stalled forks are likely to need processing before HR medicated restart can take place, and this is supported by the fact that the end-processing Mre11 protein relocates to stalled replication forks after replication inhibition (Robison et al, 2004; Hanada et al, 2007). Here, we show that PARP1 binds to and is activated at stalled replication forks to mediate recruitment of Mre11 to initiate the end processing required for replication restart and HR. Results PARP is activated on replication stalling and required for survival Several lines of evidence suggest that PARP is associated with replication forks (Lehmann et al, 1974; Jump et al, 1979; Anachkova et al, 1989; Simbulan et al, 1993; Simbulan-Rosenthal et al, 1996; Dantzer et al, 1998; Yang et al, 2004). Here, we wanted to test whether PARP1 itself is involved in the response to stalled replication forks. We treated PARP1−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) or PARP-inhibited cells with HU, which depletes dNTP pools and stalls replication forks (Bianchi et al, 1986). We found that both PARP-inhibited and PARP1−/− cells are sensitive to increasing doses of HU as compared with wild-type cells (Figure 1A; Supplementary Figure S1), showing that PARP is required for survival of replication fork stalling and confirming the HU sensitivity in PARP1−/− MEFs reported earlier (Yang et al, 2004). To further understand the role of PARP in promoting survival to HU, we tested whether PARP activity is also triggered by replication fork stalling, which would indicate an active role for PARP in the response to stalled forks. We found that the products of PARP activity, PAR polymers, are formed in cells treated with HU (Figure 1B–D). It is well established that PARP is activated by DNA single-strand breaks (SSBs), produced directly or as a base excision repair intermediate (Satoh and Lindahl, 1992), and that this attracts SSB repair proteins for repair (El-Khamisy et al, 2003). When investigating the kinetics of PARP activation, we found that HU treatment triggers a much slower PARP response than treatment with the alkylating agent methylmethane sulphonate (MMS) (Figure 1E) and, this is likely to be because of the low number of active forks that can be stalled by HU treatment in an asynchronous cell population. Figure 1.PARP is activated at stalled replication forks and required for survival of HU-induced replication stalling. (A) Surviving fraction of AA8 hamster cells treated for 10 days with increasing doses of HU in the presence or absence of PARP inhibitors NU1025 (100 nM), 1,5-dihydroxyisoquinoline (ISQ; 0.6 mM) or 4-amino-1,8-NAP (100 μM). (B) Immunofluorescence staining for PAR in AA8 hamster cells treated for 24 h with or without 0.5 mM HU. DNA was counterstained with TO-PRO-3 iodide. Bar 10 μm. (C) Quantification of immunofluorescence staining above. Percentage of AA8 cells containing sites of PARP activity induced by a 24-h treatment with 0.5 mM HU. Differences are statistically significant (Student's t-test, P<0.05). (D) Western blot analysis of PAR (top), PARP1 (middle) and α-tubulin (bottom) in myc-PARP-expressing U2OS cells treated with combinations of 0.5 mM HU and 100 μM NAP. (E) PARP activity measured by the decrease of free NAD(P)H over time during incubation with 0.5 mM HU or 1 mM MMS. Download figure Download PowerPoint PARP binds to and is activated by stalled replication fork structures in vitro It is well established that the PARP1 zinc-finger domains bind with high affinity to DNA double-strand ends as well as to other DNA structures (D'Silva et al, 1999). It is likely that PARP1 can bind to double-strand breaks (DSBs) formed when replication forks collapse (Saintigny et al, 2001; Lundin et al, 2002). However, we wanted to test whether PARP1, in addition to its ability to bind DSBs, can bind to and is activated by stalled replication forks without DSBs. To test whether PARP1 has the ability to bind a fork structure, an artificial stalled fork substrate was designed and PARP1 binding determined in an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (Figure 2A; Supplementary Figure S2). The substrate contained sealed ends to exclude the binding of PARP1 to double-stranded DNA ends, which has been reported (D'Amours et al, 1999). We found that the PARP1 protein binds to the stalled fork substrate in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 2D). PARP1 binds specifically to the gap in the replication fork-like region, as the binding was not competed for by a similar substrate ligated to form a closed DNA structure (Figure 2B). We also found that recombinant PARP1 is activated by the same replication fork substrate (Figure 2E). To further understand the DNA structure activating PARP1 at stalled forks, we tested how different gap sizes influence PARP1 activation. We found that a gap size of four nucleotides activated PARP1 equally effectively as the positive control (sonicated DNA) and increased the activity 10-fold as compared with the plasmid control suggesting that PARP1 is fully activated by a short gap (Figure 2F and G). Increasing the gap size to eight nucleotides dramatically decreased PARP1 activation, suggesting that PARP1 only recognises fork structures without extensive single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) regions. Figure 2.PARP1 binds to and is activated by DNA fork structures in vitro. (A) Biotin-labelled stalled fork construct and (B) ligated construct, containing sealed DNA ends. (C) Early replication intermediate of the plasmid pBROTB535, containing replication forks stalled in vitro by omission of topoisomerase from the replication reaction. (D) Electrophoretic mobility shift assay using biotin-labelled artificial stalled fork substrate and increasing concentrations of purified PARP1 protein with or without a 10-fold excess of non-labelled competitor stalled fork substrate or ligated construct. (E) Western blot analysis of PARP1 (bottom) and PAR (top) after incubation of 50 ng purified PARP protein with 50 ng of different DNA substrates. Automodification reduces the electrophoretic mobility of PARP1, accounting for the decreased amounts of unmodified PARP1 protein detectable at its expected molecular size in these samples. (F) PARP1 activation by increasing length of gap within the stalled fork structure (A). Recombinant human PARP1 (5 nM) was incubated with DNA constructs and biotinylated NAD+ for the times indicated, and blots were probed with anti-biotin antibody. Sonicated DNA was used as positive control and plasmid DNA as negative control. (G) Quantification of PARP1 activation as in (F). Download figure Download PowerPoint We wanted to know whether naturally stalled replication forks could also activate PARP1. To create such a replication intermediate, a standard oriC DNA replication mixture was used to initiate replication of the DNA plasmid pBROTB535 (Hiasa and Marians, 1994); however, topoisomerase was omitted resulting in prevention of fork progression by positively supercoiled DNA and accumulation of an early replication intermediate (McGlynn et al, 2001) (Figure 2C). It has been shown earlier that such stalled replication forks can reverse into a chicken foot structure that includes a Holliday Junction (Postow et al, 2001). We found that PARP1 is five-fold more activated by the stalled plasmid as compared with plasmid control (Figure 2E), suggesting that stalled replication forks are substrates for PARP1, at least in vitro. In conclusion, we believe that PARP1 may bind to and be activated in the absence of DSBs at stalled replication forks, which contain short ssDNA regions. PARP is activated at sites of stalled forks in mammalian cells It has been shown that ssDNA regions form at replication forks stalled by HU and that this ssDNA is rapidly coated with Replication Protein A (RPA) to activate the ATR kinase (Zou and Elledge, 2003; Robison et al, 2004). In line with earlier reports, we found that the RPA relocates into nuclear foci after HU treatment (Robison et al, 2004). Here, we found that the HU-induced RPA foci co-localise with HU-induced PAR polymers, supporting the hypothesis that PARP is activated at sites of stalled and collapsed replication forks in mammalian cells (Figure 3A and B). Figure 3.HU induces RPA foci that co-localise with sites of activated PARP. (A) HU-induced RPA foci in wild-type MEFs, representing ssDNA, co-localise with PAR polymers formed in response to 0.5 mM HU treatment for 24 h. DNA was counterstained with TO-PRO-3 iodide. The nuclei borders are marked with blue. (B) Percentages of PAR foci co-localising with RPA. Cells with at least 10 PAR foci with a diameter over 1 μm in an optical section of 1.5 μm taken in the middle of the cell were analysed for co-localisation. The mean and standard deviation from 10 cells are depicted. (C) PARP1 associates with stalled replication forks independently of PARP activity. Forks were isolated by CldU co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) after a 3-h treatment with 0.5 mM HU and/or inhibition of PARP using 100 μM NAP. The level of histone H3 was used as loading control. Download figure Download PowerPoint The PARP1 protein is highly abundant and does not form foci on HU treatment (Schultz et al, 2003, data not shown). Nevertheless, we wanted to investigate whether the PARP1 protein is present at stalled replication forks. For this experiment, we labelled newly replicated DNA with chlorodeoxyuridine (CldU) after HU stalling and investigated whether PARP1 co-immunoprecipitated (co-IP) with CldU (i.e. restarted replication forks). We found that PARP1 did co-IP with restarted replication forks (Figure 3C). The amount of PARP1 present in the chromatin (DNA) fraction and co-IP with CldU is increased after HU treatment and was not affected by PARP inhibition, suggesting that PARP1 is present at sites of stalled replication forks and that this association with replication forks is independent of PARP activity (Figure 3C). This is in line with earlier data showing that PARP1 binding to DNA is independent of the enzyme activity (Satoh and Lindahl, 1992). Interestingly, PARP1 co-IP with newly replicated DNA in untreated as well as HU-treated cells, suggesting that PARP is always bound to DNA or that it is involved in overcoming spontaneously stalled replication forks. PARP1 is required for replication restart of stalled replication forks As PARP1 binds to and is activated at stalled replication forks and promotes survival after stalling, we wanted to investigate how PARP influences the reactivation and repair of stalled replication forks. To test this, we used a novel method based on the principle that each replication fork provides a pair of single-stranded DNA ends that serve as starting points for DNA unwinding in alkaline solution (Johansson et al, 2004). The cells are pulse labelled for 30 min with 3H-thymidine and the speed of replication fork elongation is monitored as the time required for the labelled DNA to be progressed into the double-stranded DNA fraction after alkaline unwinding (Figure 4A). This procedure only measures elongation of replication forks present at the time of labelling. Figure 4.PARP activity is required for restart of stalled replication forks. (A) The alkaline DNA unwinding technique releases 3H-thymidine-labelled DNA onto the ssDNA fraction when replication elongation is inhibited. The speed of replication fork elongation is measured as the time required for 3H-thymidine-labelled DNA not to be released into the ssDNA fraction (Johansson et al, 2004). (B) Dose-dependent replication elongation inhibition in AA8 hamster cells after addition of HU. (C) Time course of replication fork progression in AA8 cells during HU or after HU treatment with/without PARP inhibitor (NAP, 50 μM). The means and standard errors (bars) of three independent experiments are shown. Download figure Download PowerPoint We found that addition of HU directly after the pulse label inhibits replication elongation and inhibition of replication elongation is saturated at 2 mM (Figure 4B). We then investigated replication progression when PARP is inhibited. A co-treatment with 2 mM HU and PARP inhibitor did not affect the HU-induced slowing of replication elongation (Figure 4C). These data show that HU-induced stalling of replication elongation is independent of PARP activity. We also wanted to test the possibility that PARP is involved in repair and reactivation of stalled replication forks. In this experiment, we arrested replication elongation with HU for 2 h and then released the cells in fresh media with or without inhibition of PARP. We found that cells released from HU resumed replication elongation quickly after the HU treatment. In contrast, cells released into media containing PARP inhibitor showed a replication elongation delay (Figure 4C). These data suggest that PARP activity is required to resume replication elongation at stalled forks. Our replication elongation assay is unable to determine whether the reduced replication elongation after PARP inhibition is due to a fraction of the replication forks being stalled or whether the speed of replication elongation is globally reduced. To address this, we used the DNA fibre assay (Petermann et al, 2008); we incorporated 5-CldU, blocked with HU and released into 5-iododeoxyuridine (IdU) in the presence or absence of PARP inhibition; DNA spreads were then analysed by immunofluorescence (Figure 5A). We found that rather than globally slowing replication, PARP inhibition increases the number of forks that do not resume replication after release from HU (Figure 5B; see Supplementary Figure S3 for a more detailed analysis). The same results were observed after depletion of PARP1 using siRNA (Figure 5E; Supplementary Figure S4), showing that it is not inactive PARP protein trapped on DNA that prevents replication restart. An alternative siRNA directed against a different target sequence of PARP1 had the same effect (Figure 7). This shows that PARP activity and PARP1 protein are required to reactivate stalled replication forks. PARP inhibition or depletion did not, however, significantly alter normal replication elongation rates, showing that PARP is not required for replication elongation per se (Figure 5C and F). Figure 5.PARP1 is required for replication restart as determined using the DNA fibre assay. DNA fibre analysis of replication fork restart in U2OS cells treated with PARP inhibitor NAP or depleted of PARP1. (A) Labelling protocols for DNA fibre analysis of replication forks. U2OS cells were pulse labelled with CldU, treated with HU for 2 h, and released into IdU. Example images of replication forks are shown. (B) Fork restart in the presence or absence of 100 μM NAP (left). Stalled replication forks are shown as percentage of CldU-labelled tracks. (C) Speed of restarting forks in the presence or absence of 100 μM NAP (right). IdU fork speeds are shown as percentage of CldU fork speeds. (D) Protein levels of PARP1 and β-actin (control) in U2OS cells after 48 h depletion with siRNA. (E) Fork restart in PARP1-depleted cells, as above (left). (F) Speed of restarting forks in PARP1-depleted cells, as above (right). The means and s.d. (bars) of three independent experiments are shown. Values marked with asterisks are significantly different from control (*P<0.05 or **P<0.01). Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 6.PARP is required for Mre11 localisation and resection at stalled replication forks. (A) Co-immunoprecipitation in U2OS cells showing proteins interacting with PARP1 in presence and absence of 0.5 mM HU and 100 μM PARP inhibitor NAP. (B) Immunofluorescence staining for PAR polymers and Mre11 protein in U2OS cells treated with 0.5 mM HU for 24 h. DNA was counterstained with TO-PRO-3 iodide. The nuclei borders are marked with blue. The close up panel shows Mre11 foci that co-localise with PAR (labelled C) those that do not co-localise (labelled N) and Mre11 foci with a diameter <0.5 μm. Bar is 0.5 μm. (C) Percentages of Mre11 foci co-localising with PAR. Cells with at least 10 Mre11 foci with a diameter over 0.5 μm in an optical section of 1.5 μm taken in the middle of the cell were analysed for co-localisation. The mean and standard deviation from 22 cells are depicted. (D) Quantification of Mre11 foci in U2OS cells induced by 0.5 mM HU in the presence or absence of PARP inhibitor. The means and s.d. (bars) of three experiments are shown. Values marked with asterisks are significantly different (Student's t-test, P<0.01). (E) Quantification of large RPA foci induced by 0.5 mM HU in PARP+/+ (A19) and PARP−/− (A11) MEFs. The means and s.d. (bars) of five experiments are shown. Values marked with asterisks are significantly different (Student's t-test, P<0.001). (F) Quantification of RPA foci in U2OS cells induced by 0.5 mM HU in the presence or absence of PARP inhibitor. The means and s.d. (bars) of three experiments are shown. Values marked with asterisks are significantly different (Student's t-test, P<0.01). Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 7.PARP1 exerts an effect in the same pathway as Mre11 to restart stalled replication forks. DNA fibre analysis of replication fork restart in U2OS cells depleted of PARP1, Mre11 or co-depleted of PARP1 and Mre11. Cells were labelled to analyse fork restart after 2 h HU as in Figure 5. (A) Western blot analysis of PARP1, Mre11 and β-actin in siRNA-treated U2OS cells. (B) Representative images of DNA fibre tracks. (C) Fork restart in PARP1- and/or Mre11-depleted cells. (D) Speed of restarting forks in PARP1- and/or Mre11-depleted cells. IdU fork speeds are shown as percentage of CldU fork speeds. Means and s.d. of three independent experiments are shown. Values marked with asterisks are significantly different from control (*P<0.05 or **P<0.01). Download figure Download PowerPoint PARP1 is required for Mre11 foci formation and efficient ssDNA formation at stalled replication forks Little is known about the mechanism for replication restart in mammalian cells, but processing of DNA structures and HR are likely to have a function. It has been shown earlier that Mre11, part of the Mre11/RAD50/Nbs1 complex and involved in DNA resection to promote HR (Sartori et al, 2007; Buis et al, 2008), has a function in the restart of damaged replication forks (Trenz et al, 2006). Here, we confirmed an interaction of PARP1 with Nbs1 and Mre11 (Haince et al, 2008) that is resistant to ethidium bromide, showing that the interaction is direct and not DNA dependent (Figure 6A). The amount of co-IP Mre11 was reduced when PARP was inhibited, suggesting that PARP activity is required to promote the interaction. Treatment with HU causes Mre11 to re-localise into discrete foci. We found that a portion of the Mre11 foci formed in response to HU treatment co-localise with PAR polymers (Figure 6B and C), reminiscent of the observation that the localisation of Mre11 to sites of DNA damage is dependent on PARP (Haince et al, 2008). In addition, the number of cells containing >20 HU-induced Mre11 foci was reduced when PARP was inhibited (Figure 6D). Mre11 is involved in resecting DNA ends (Williams et al, 2008) and is critical for repair of collapsed replication forks (Dolganov et al, 1996; Costanzo et al, 2001); this resection is thought to be essential because it allows HR-induced restart of forks. Our data, therefore, suggest that PARP exerts an effect to attract or retain Mre11 at sites of stalling, thus promoting resection, which could in turn allow for HR-mediated restart. The portion of Mre11 foci not overlapping with PAR polymers may reflect sites of non-homologous end joining, which can also repair HU-induced DSBs (Saintigny et al, 2001; Lundin et al, 2002). Using RPA foci as a marker of the amount of ssDNA produced, we tested whether resection of DNA is dependent on PARP. We found that fewer HU-induced RPA foci form in PARP1−/− as compared with PARP1+/+ MEFs and that PARP inhibitor reduced the formation of HU-induced RPA foci in wild-type cells (Figure 6E and F), suggesting that PARP1 activation is required for efficient formation of ssDNA regions at stalled replication forks; this is consistent with a role for PARP in recruitment of Mre11 for resection of DNA. PARP1 and Mre11 work in the same pathway for restart of stalled replication forks Although PARP1 facilitates Mre11 recruitment to stalled forks and promotes ssDNA formation, it is not clear whether this is related to the role of PARP in replication restart. To investigate the interplay between PARP1 and Mre11 during the reactivation of stalled replication forks, we depleted Mre11 using siRNA (Figure 7A) and found that Mre11-depleted cells showed a similar defect in replication restart as PARP1-depleted cells (Figure 7B and C; see Supplementary Figure S5 for a more detailed analysis). Moreover, we found that