Scientific Report25 June 2015Open Access Transcriptional slippage in the positive-sense RNA virus family Potyviridae Allan Olspert Allan Olspert Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Betty Y-W Chung Betty Y-W Chung Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author John F Atkins John F Atkins Schools of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Search for more papers by this author John P Carr John P Carr Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Andrew E Firth Corresponding Author Andrew E Firth Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Allan Olspert Allan Olspert Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Betty Y-W Chung Betty Y-W Chung Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author John F Atkins John F Atkins Schools of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA Search for more papers by this author John P Carr John P Carr Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Andrew E Firth Corresponding Author Andrew E Firth Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Author Information Allan Olspert1,2, Betty Y-W Chung2, John F Atkins3,4, John P Carr2 and Andrew E Firth 1 1Division of Virology, Department of Pathology, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK 2Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK 3Schools of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland 4Department of Human Genetics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA *Corresponding author. Tel: +44 1223 762652; E-mail: [email protected] EMBO Reports (2015)16:995-1004https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201540509 See also: KA White (August 2015) PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Abstract The family Potyviridae encompasses ~30% of plant viruses and is responsible for significant economic losses worldwide. Recently, a small overlapping coding sequence, termed pipo, was found to be conserved in the genomes of all potyvirids. PIPO is expressed as part of a frameshift protein, P3N-PIPO, which is essential for virus cell-to-cell movement. However, the frameshift expression mechanism has hitherto remained unknown. Here, we demonstrate that transcriptional slippage, specific to the viral RNA polymerase, results in a population of transcripts with an additional “A” inserted within a highly conserved GAAAAAA sequence, thus enabling expression of P3N-PIPO. The slippage efficiency is ~2% in Turnip mosaic virus and slippage is inhibited by mutations in the GAAAAAA sequence. While utilization of transcriptional slippage is well known in negative-sense RNA viruses such as Ebola, mumps and measles, to our knowledge this is the first report of its widespread utilization for gene expression in positive-sense RNA viruses. Synopsis This study investigates the transframe expression mechanism of the recently identified potyviral movement protein, P3N-PIPO. While many positive-strand RNA viruses utilize translational frameshifting for gene expression, P3N-PIPO expression was found to depend on polymerase slippage. Compared to other potyviral proteins, P3N-PIPO is produced only in very small amounts. Slippage of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) at a phylogenetically conserved GAAAAAA sequence leads to insertion of an additional “A” in 1–2% of viral transcripts. These edited transcripts encode the transframe P3N-PIPO protein. Introduction The family Potyviridae encompasses around 30% of known plant virus species and causes more than half of viral crop damage worldwide 12. The family comprises the genera Potyvirus, Rymovirus, Bymovirus, Ipomovirus, Tritimovirus, Macluravirus, Poacevirus and Brambyvirus, with genus Potyvirus containing the most species. Family members have single-stranded monopartite positive-sense RNA genomes except in the genus Bymovirus where the genome is bipartite. The genomic RNA has a covalently linked 5′-terminal protein (VPg) and a 3′ poly(A) tail. Subgenomic transcripts are not produced 3. Until recently, all the viral proteins were thought to be encoded within a single open reading frame (ORF) (or one ORF per segment in bymoviruses) that is translated as a polyprotein and cleaved to produce the mature virus proteins. However, it is now thought that all potyvirids contain an additional coding ORF, termed pipo, that overlaps the P3-encoding region of the polyprotein ORF in the −1/+2 reading frame (Fig 1) 4. PIPO is expressed as part of a larger product that was hypothesized to comprise the N-terminal part of P3 (termed P3N) fused to PIPO via either translational or transcriptional frameshifting 4. This hypothesis was further supported by the detection of products of appropriate sizes for P3 and P3N-PIPO with antibodies to N-terminal epitopes in P3 56. Frameshifting was proposed to occur at a GAA_AAA_A sequence (underscores separate polyprotein-frame codons) at the 5′ end of the pipo ORF that is highly conserved among Potyvirus species (Fig 1). Members of other Potyviridae genera have similar homopolymeric runs of “A”s at the same site (Appendix Dataset S1). The frameshift product P3N-PIPO plays an essential role in cell-to-cell movement, and mutations within this motif result in a movement-deficient phenotype 56789. Figure 1. Schematic of the TuMV genomeGFP is inserted between P1 and HC-Pro in the parent infectious clone (TuMV-GFP). Additionally, a V5 tag was inserted near the start of P3 to facilitate simultaneous detection of both P3 (zeroframe product) and P3N-PIPO (transframe product). The position of the conserved GAA_AAA_A sequence at the 5′ end of the pipo ORF is indicated. A WebLogo 56 representation of sequence conservation around the 5′ end of the pipo ORF for 99 genus Potyvirus NCBI RefSeqs aligned by amino acid sequence (see Appendix Dataset S1) is shown below. Download figure Download PowerPoint Many viruses utilize programmed ribosomal frameshifting (PRF) to direct a proportion of ribosomes into an alternative reading frame. In eukaryotic systems, efficient −1 PRF normally requires a “slippery” heptanucleotide sequence where the shift in reading frame takes place, and a 3′-adjacent stimulatory element which normally comprises an RNA stem-loop or pseudoknot structure separated from the slippery heptanucleotide by a “spacer” region of 5–9 nt 1011. The consensus motif for the slippery heptanucleotide is X_XXY_YYZ, where XXX normally represents any three identical nucleotides; YYY represents AAA or UUU; Z represents A, C or U; and spaces separate zero-frame codons 12. In the tandem slippage model, the P-site anticodon re-pairs from XXY to XXX, whereas the A-site anticodon re-pairs from YYZ to YYY, allowing for perfect re-pairing except at the wobble position 13. Because the codon:anticodon duplex in the P site is not monitored so strictly as that in the A site, certain deviations from the canonical XXX of the slippery site are tolerated, including GGU, GUU, GGA and GAA 101214. Frameshifting efficiency ranges from around 5–50%, depending on the particular system. In the absence of a 3′ stimulatory RNA structure, certain sequences can still support frameshifting to a level of potentially up to around 2% 12. In general, RNA structures typical of −1 PRF stimulatory elements are not predicted to form at an appropriate spacing downstream of the potyvirus GAA_AAA_A sequence. Nonetheless, this could still be consistent with −1 PRF if only a very low level of frameshifting were required, or if there were atypical stimulatory elements (e.g. nascent peptide, mRNA–rRNA interactions, RNA structure involving base-pairing with distal elements in the genome or trans-acting factors 15161718). More importantly, however, the GAA_AAA_A sequence is in a different frame from the −1 PRF X_XXY_YYZ shift site motif, making it inconsistent with the tandem −1 slippage model. On the other hand, around half of Potyvirus species have a “G” preceding the conserved GAA_AAA_A sequence (making a canonical −1 PRF shift site G_GAA_AAA), while one might propose that other species use −1 PRF but with little re-pairing in the P site. An alternative explanation is that frameshifting occurs at the transcriptional level. In several single-stranded negative-sense RNA viruses, such as members of the genus Ebolavirus and the sub-family Paramyxovirinae, the viral polymerase can stutter at a defined site to insert one or more additional nucleotides into a proportion of mRNA transcripts 19. Stuttering involves realignment between the template and nascent RNA strands in the polymerase and preferentially occurs on homopolymeric runs, especially those comprising “A”s or “U”s. In the paramyxoviruses, stuttering occurs on a 3′-UnCm-5′ (n + m ≥ 8) motif in the negative-sense template and results in the insertion of one or more additional “G”s in the positive-sense (5′-AnGm-3′) mRNA for the phosphoprotein gene. In paramyxoviruses, directionality is provided by the ability of RNA to form G:U pairs, but not A:C pairs. In ebolaviruses, stuttering occurs on a run of 7 “U”s in the negative-sense template to insert one or more additional “A”s in the positive-sense mRNA for the glyco-protein gene. However, transcriptional slippage was not considered an obvious explanation for pipo expression because of the short length of the conserved homopolymeric run (just 6 “A”s), and because the conserved 5′ “G” (resulting in a 3′-CU6-5′ sequence in the negative-sense template, opposite in orientation to the paramyxovirus 3′-UnCm-5′ stuttering site) appeared to favour nucleotide deletions over insertions, and two deletions (or one insertion) would be required to provide access to the pipo ORF. To resolve the conundrum of pipo expression, we engineered an infectious Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV; genus Potyvirus) clone to express epitope-tagged P3/P3N-PIPO and used it to assess frameshift-ing efficiency in the natural context of virus infection. We performed mutational analyses of the GAA_AAA_A sequence and investigated the mutant phenotypes. Finally, we performed high-throughput sequencing of RNA derived from virus infections. We found that an extra “A” is inserted into the GA6 sequence in approximately 2% of TuMV transcripts, thus enabling expression of P3N-PIPO. Comparable editing frequencies (0.8–1.3%) were observed for two other potyviruses. Results and Discussion P3N-PIPO is expressed at very low levels in TuMV-infected plants To investigate the potyvirus frameshifting mechanism, we used a GFP-expressing infectious clone of TuMV (TuMV-GFP; Fig 1). To enable efficient detection of both P3 and P3N-PIPO with the same antibody, we inserted a sequence encoding the V5 epitope to tag both the P3 and P3N-PIPO proteins near to their N-termini (Fig 1). The V5 tag was stably maintained within the virus genome for at least four passages. Using a V5 antibody, it was possible to detect both P3 and P3N-PIPO in protein extracts from upper leaves of plants following inoculation of lower leaves with TuMV-GFP via agroinfiltration (Fig 2). P3 was detectable in the early stages of systemic infection (around 5 days post-inoculation [d.p.i.]) and accumulated over time as expected. For the detection of P3N-PIPO, very concentrated protein samples (near lane overloading) were required and P3N-PIPO became detectable in minute quantities only at later timepoints (around 6 d.p.i.; see also Fig 3C for 21 d.p.i.), presumably after the virus had spread and accumulated within systemically infected leaves. Due to the massive differences in P3 and P3N-PIPO quantities, and rather poor detection of the latter, the frameshifting efficiency could not be determined reliably using Western analysis. Nonetheless, these experiments demonstrated that P3N-PIPO is produced only in very small amounts relative to the non-frameshift product P3. Figure 2. Detection of V5-tagged P3 and P3N-PIPOTotal protein extracts from upper leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana plants agroinfiltrated with TuMV-GFP or mock-infiltrated were collected 4–6 d.p.i. Proteins were separated by SDS–PAGE, blotted and probed with V5 antibody. Bands corresponding to the theoretical size of tagged P3 (41.7 kDa) and P3N-PIPO (26.5 kDa) are indicated with arrowheads, visible in the “infected” lane at 6 d.p.i. Ponceau S staining of nitrocellulose membrane-bound RuBisCO large subunit (RuBP-L) was used as a loading control. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 3. Analysis of TuMV mutants Sequences of slip site mutants. The highly conserved GAA_AAA_A (underlined) and flanking sequence in TuMV is shown at the top (WT). Spaces separate P3-frame codons. Theoretical translations in the 0 and −1/+2 frames are shown. Slip site mutants M1, M2, P and FSko are shown below with mutated nucleotides shown in red. All mutations leave the P3 amino acid sequence unaltered. Analysis of the ability to establish systemic infection. Nicotiana benthamiana plants were biolistically inoculated with WT or mutant (M1, M2, P, FSko) V5-tagged TuMV-GFP. Infection was monitored via GFP fluorescence under UV light at 5, 7 and 9 d.p.i. Western blot and RT–PCR analysis of upper leaves of inoculated plants. Total protein extracts (21 d.p.i.) were probed with CP and V5 antibodies. Ponceau S staining of RuBisCO large subunit (RuBP-L) was used as a loading control. For RT–PCR, TuMV-specific primers were used for detection of positive-strand viral RNA. Analysis of cell-to-cell movement. Confocal microscopy of biolistically inoculated leaves at 6 d.p.i. Scale bar = 25 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Genetic analysis indicates that −1 ribosomal frameshifting is not the primary expression mechanism for P3N-PIPO in TuMV A highly conserved GAA_AAA_A sequence at the 5′ end of the pipo ORF was proposed previously to be the site of frameshifting 4 (Fig 1). In TuMV, the motif is preceded by a “G”, to form a G_GAA_AAA_A sequence that might be compatible with −1 PRF to access the pipo ORF (Fig 3A). On the other hand, conservation of the final “A” would not be relevant for −1 tandem slippage PRF but would be relevant for transcriptional slippage. To further elucidate the frameshifting mechanism, several mutants were constructed (Fig 3A). Mutants M1 and M2 carry mutations 5′-adjacent to the GAA_AAA_A sequence that are expected to inhibit possible −1 PRF by preventing P-site codon:anticodon re-pairing following a −1 shift. Mutant P has mutations at the 3′ end of the GAA_AAA_A sequence that are expected to inhibit possible transcriptional slippage by reducing the length of the homopolymeric run of “A”s. Mutant FSko has mutations in the middle of the GAA_AAA_A sequence that should inhibit frameshifting by either mechanism. All the mutations listed above were introduced into the TuMV-GFP cDNA with V5-tagged P3 (denoted WT) and do not change the P3 amino acid sequence. Nicotiana benthamiana plants were biolistically inoculated with WT and mutant virus clones and virus infection monitored using GFP fluorescence (Fig 3B). As P3N-PIPO is required for virus movement, changes in its expression would be expected to manifest in an absence of movement or altered movement dynamics. In plants infected with WT virus, systemic infection was detected by 7 d.p.i. with GFP fluorescence detected in small clusters in the upper leaves. By 9 d.p.i., GFP fluorescence was seen over the entire leaf area of the upper leaves. Both mutants in which possible −1 PRF was inhibited, M1 and M2, behaved similarly to WT virus. In both cases, GFP fluorescence was detectable by 7 d.p.i. and reached maximum area by 9 d.p.i. In contrast, no GFP signal was detected in plants inoculated with mutant P, in which possible transcriptional slippage was inhibited, or mutant FSko, in which any type of frameshifting should be inhibited. The plants were monitored until 28 d.p.i. without any qualitative change being observable. Over two series of experiments, with 12 and 6 plants per construct, the percentages of systemic infection were as follows: WT, 75–100%; M1, 83–100%; M2, 83–100%; P, 0%; and FSko, 0%. Upper leaves of inoculated plants were also analysed for systemic infection using Western analysis and the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT–PCR) (Fig 3C). Coat protein (CP), P3 and P3N-PIPO were detected in plants inoculated with WT and mutants M1 and M2, but, as expected based on the previous results, these proteins were absent from plants inoculated with mutants P and FSko. Using RT–PCR, viral RNA was detected in plants inoculated with WT and mutants M1 and M2, but not in plants inoculated with mutants P and FSko. The cDNA fragments obtained from plants inoculated with M1 and M2 were sequenced, and no reversions were detected at the mutated sites. Virus movement was monitored in inoculated leaves by confocal microscopy (Fig 3D). For WT virus, GFP fluorescence became easily detectable from 4 to 5 d.p.i. in clusters of cells, indicating virus cell-to-cell movement. Cell clusters typically reached approximately maximum size and signal intensity by day 6. Similar cell-to-cell movement was seen with mutants M1 and M2. In contrast, with mutants P and FSko, GFP fluorescence was only detected in single cells, indicating loss of cell-to-cell movement. Thus, inhibiting the potential for transcriptional slippage at the GAA_AAA_A site resulted in a movement-deficient phenotype, probably due to no or insufficient expression of P3N-PIPO. Conversely, these experiments indicate that −1 PRF is either not used for P3N-PIPO expression in TuMV or, if it does occur at some level, it is not the primary expression mechanism. To ensure that the movement-deficient phenotype of P and FSko was not simply an artefact of defective virus replication (with GFP fluorescence observed in single cells resulting from translation of RNA transcribed directly from the plasmid), these mutants were tested for their ability to replicate within cells. Mutants were introduced into plants by agroinfiltration (Fig 4). A replication-deficient TuMV-GFP clone, ∆GDD, lacking the catalytic GDD site of the viral polymerase, was constructed and used as a control. Using strand-specific RT–PCR, the positive-strand viral RNA (derived from T-DNA transcription and/or viral replication) was, as expected, detected with all constructs: ∆GDD, WT, P and FSko. However, when strand-specific RT–PCR was used to detect the negative-strand viral RNA, which can only be produced by the viral polymerase during viral replication, cDNA fragments were detected only for WT, P and FSko, indicating that mutants P and FSko are replication competent. Viral protein accumulation was also analysed. P3 and CP were detected by Western analysis in total protein extracts from patches infiltrated with ∆GDD, WT, P and FSko. Comparison of protein levels indicated that mutants P and FSko do not accumulate as efficiently as WT virus, though this might be an artefact of the assay as WT virus would reach more cells whereas the movement-deficient mutants would only replicate and accumulate in transformed cells. As expected, much lower levels of P3 and CP were detected in patches infiltrated with the ∆GDD mutant, consistent with transcription and translation of the T-DNA encoded sequence, without viral replication. In summary, the mutants unable to move from cell to cell (P and FSko) are still able to replicate and accumulate, supporting the proposition that the movement-compromised phenotype results from the absence or insufficient expression of P3N-PIPO. Figure 4. Replication of movement-deficient mutantsNicotiana benthamiana plants were agroinfiltrated with full-length WT and mutant viral clones. A replication-deficient mutant, ∆GDD, was used as a negative control. At 6 d.p.i., total RNA and protein were extracted from infiltrated patches. Virus replication was detected with strand-specific RT–PCR. Ethidium bromide staining of 28S rRNA was used as a control for RNA quality. Protein extracts were analysed by Western blot for the presence of CP and P3 (V5 epitope). Ponceau S staining of RuBisCO large subunit (RuBP-L) was used as a loading control. Download figure Download PowerPoint High-throughput sequencing reveals transcriptional slippage at the GA6 site To further test whether transcriptional slippage might explain P3N-PIPO production, we performed high-throughput sequencing of the slip site region in the context of virus infection. RNA was extracted from systemically infected leaves (total RNA), as well as from virions and polysomes. Primers designed to anneal just upstream or downstream of the GA6 sequence were used to reverse transcribe and amplify a region surrounding the GA6 site, and the resulting cDNAs were subjected to high-throughput sequencing (Fig 5, Appendix Table S1). Around 1.9–2.1% of reads obtained from total RNA purified from WT TuMV systemically infected leaves contained a single “A” insertion within the GA6 sequence (GA6 changed to GA7), thus allowing expression of P3N-PIPO at a level of ~2%, consistent with Western blots of V5-tagged virus (Fig 2). A single “A” insertion was the most abundant insertion/deletion event detected. Similar results were obtained with TuMV mutants M1 and M2, with 2.3–1.8% of reads containing a single “A” insertion. Polysomal and virion RNA (both purified from WT TuMV systemically infected leaves) were also tested. For polysomal RNA, a single “A” insertion was seen in 2.9% of reads, while, for virion-derived RNA, a single “A” insertion was seen in 2.1–2.5% of reads. Due to the movement-deficient phenotype of mutants P and FSko, RNA from agroinfiltrated patches was used to test for slippage, with insertions detected in ≤0.01% of reads. No insertions were observed when using plasmid DNA as template for library preparation, although deletions occurred at a low level (0.02–0.03%). Thus, insertions were not introduced during amplification, library preparation or sequencing. Figure 5. Transcriptional slippage at the GA6 sequenceLibraries were prepared and subjected to high-throughput sequencing in order to detect low-frequency insertion/deletion events. All samples apart from Ubi E2, eIF5B-1, eIF5B-2, BCMV and BCMNV correspond to TuMV. RNA was purified from upper leaves of systemically infected plants for samples TuMV WT, TuMV M1, TuMV M2, BCMV and BCMNV. Polysomes and virions were also purified from upper leaves of TuMV-infected plants. RNA from agroinfiltrated tissue was used for the TuMV P, FSko and ∆GDD mutants. Additionally, T7 in vitro transcribed RNA (T7 transc.) and plasmid DNA (DNA) were analysed. Three GA6 sequences in host genes—Ubi E2, eIF5B-1 and eIF5B-2—were also analysed. For each sample, frequencies of transcripts with an “A” insertion at the GA6 sequence are shown in blue; frequencies of transcripts with two or more inserted “A” nucleotides are shown in orange; and frequencies of transcripts with one or more “A” nucleotides deleted are in yellow. Download figure Download PowerPoint To test whether transcriptional slippage was specific to the viral polymerase, we also tested RNAs transcribed by host cell RNA polymerase. Samples from leaf patches agroinfiltrated with the ∆GDD TuMV mutant were analysed using the same primers as above. In these samples, TuMV RNA is transcribed by N. benthamiana RNA polymerase II from T-DNA, although it is conceivable that some transcripts produced in infiltrated A. tumefaciens cells may also be present. Prior to reverse transcription, samples were excessively treated with DNase and complete elimination of contaminating DNA verified by PCR. Insertion of a single “A” at the GA6 site occurred at a level of 0.05–0.07% in these samples—around 33-fold lower than was seen with WT TuMV. Two host genes containing GA6G sequences (similar to TuMV) were also tested: ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 (Ubi E2) and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 5B (eIF5B). For eIF5B, two distinct GA6 sites were tested. In two of the three cases, insertion of an additional “A” at the GA6 site occurred at a level of 0.05–0.07% (around 33-fold below WT TuMV), while the third site was more slip-prone, with “A” insertions occurring at a level of 0.20–0.25% (around 9-fold below WT TuMV). In addition to testing specificity of higher levels of slippage to the viral polymerase, these experiments also put upper bounds on slippage introduced during reverse transcription. In contrast, the TuMV WT deletion rate (0.13–0.15%) was similar to that of the ΔGDD control (0.12–0.14%), indicating that pipo-site deletions are not specific to the viral polymerase. To test whether insertions were specific to the pipo slip site, total RNA from systemically infected leaves and virion-derived RNA were subjected to high-throughput sequencing (ENA databank accession PRJEB9490). Similar to before, single-nucleotide insertions at the GA6 sequence were observed at a level of 1.9 and 2.1% for total and virion RNA, respectively. Elsewhere in the TuMV genome, an average insertion rate of 0.001% per nucleotide was seen with both samples and no other insertion “hotspots” were detected of similar magnitude to the pipo slip site (Appendix Fig S1). While investigating translational frameshifting as a potential P3N-PIPO expression mechanism, we had previously performed in vitro translations of reporter constructs containing the pipo slip site and flanking sequences. We observed expression of both alternative frames with access to the pipo reading frame occurring at a level of 1.5–2.1% for WT sequence (Appendix Fig S2). In view of the above results, we decided to test whether slippage in the in vitro system might also be occurring at the level of transcription. We subjected cDNAs derived from T7-transcribed transcripts to high-throughput sequencing and found that 2.8% of transcripts had an “A” insertion in the GA6 sequence, while 0.5% of transcripts had deletions at the same site (Appendix Table S1). Thus, the in vitro frameshift products may be presumed to result from slippage by the T7 polymerase. The M1 and M2 mutations had little effect on expression of the frameshift products in vitro while the P mutation inhibited their production. To confirm that transcriptional slippage was not specific to TuMV, we analysed RNA from plants infected with two other potyviruses, Bean common mosaic virus (BCMV; aug_GAA_AAA_Auc slip site) and Bean common mosaic necrosis virus (BCMNV; ucg_GAA_AAA_Auu slip site). In these species, insertion of a single “A” at the GA6 sequence occurred at a level of 1.3% and 0.8%, respectively, and in both an elevated level of deletions was observed in comparison with the TuMV samples. We also analysed Plum pox virus data available in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) Short Read Archive (SRA) database (accession numbers ERX013141 and ERX013142; 12 libraries). The mean frequency of an “A” insertion at the GA6 site was 0.8%, with frequencies for individual samples ranging from 0.3 to 1.0% (Appendix Fig S3). Similarly, a low level (1–2%) of frameshift mutations at position 2,891 (which corresponds to the GA6 site) has been reported for Zucchini yellow mosaic virus 20. Together, these results indicate that around 0.8–2% of viral transcripts produced by the potyvirus polymerase allow expression of P3N-PIPO as a consequence of an “A” insertion at the GA6 site. Although previous mass spectrometric analysis of cDNAs derived from RNA from TuMV-infected plants failed to detect transcripts with insertions or deletions 4, this analysis may not have been sensitive enough to identify the low level of slippage observed. While we cannot rule out −1 PRF occurring at some level in TuMV or other potyvirid species, our data suggest that transcriptional slippage alone can account for P3N-PIPO expression. An earlier hypothesis that potyviruses might use a novel +2 PRF mechanism, involving re-pairing of the P- and A-site tRNAs from GAA and AAA to A_AA and A_AN, respectively 10, now seems unnecessary and unlikely. Homopolymeric runs of six or more adenosines or uridines are under-represented in potyvirus genomes If potyvirid polymerases are prone to slippage at GA6 sequences, selection might act against such sequences spontaneously arising at other locations (in any reading frame). In view of this, we re-ana-lysed all NCBI Potyviridae RefSeqs. Of 123 RefSeqs, only seven lack a GA6 sequence at the 5′ end of the pipo ORF (Appendix Dataset S1), while only twelve instances of GA6 sequences were found at other sites within the polyprotein ORFs (Appendix Table S2). Among potyvirid species, all three reading frames (GAA_AAA_A, G_AAA_AAA and