Aging CellVolume 14, Issue 4 p. 644-658 Original ArticleOpen Access The Achilles’ heel of senescent cells: from transcriptome to senolytic drugs Yi Zhu, Yi Zhu Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USACo-first authors.Search for more papers by this authorTamara Tchkonia, Tamara Tchkonia Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USACo-first authors.Search for more papers by this authorTamar Pirtskhalava, Tamar Pirtskhalava Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorAdam C. Gower, Adam C. Gower Section of Computational Biomedicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USASearch for more papers by this authorHusheng Ding, Husheng Ding Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNino Giorgadze, Nino Giorgadze Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorAllyson K. Palmer, Allyson K. Palmer Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorYuji Ikeno, Yuji Ikeno Departments of Pathology, Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA Research Service, Geriatric Research and Education Clinical Center, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USASearch for more papers by this authorGene B. Hubbard, Gene B. Hubbard Departments of Pathology, Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA Research Service, Geriatric Research and Education Clinical Center, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USASearch for more papers by this authorMarc Lenburg, Marc Lenburg Section of Computational Biomedicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USASearch for more papers by this authorSteven P. O'Hara, Steven P. O'Hara Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNicholas F. LaRusso, Nicholas F. LaRusso Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorJordan D. Miller, Jordan D. Miller Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorCarolyn M. Roos, Carolyn M. Roos Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorGrace C. Verzosa, Grace C. Verzosa Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNathan K. LeBrasseur, Nathan K. LeBrasseur Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorJonathan D. Wren, Jonathan D. Wren Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USASearch for more papers by this authorJoshua N. Farr, Joshua N. Farr Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorSundeep Khosla, Sundeep Khosla Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorMichael B. Stout, Michael B. Stout Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorSara J. McGowan, Sara J. McGowan Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorHeike Fuhrmann-Stroissnigg, Heike Fuhrmann-Stroissnigg Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAditi U. Gurkar, Aditi U. Gurkar Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorJing Zhao, Jing Zhao Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorDebora Colangelo, Debora Colangelo Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAkaitz Dorronsoro, Akaitz Dorronsoro Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorYuan Yuan Ling, Yuan Yuan Ling Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAmira S. Barghouthy, Amira S. Barghouthy Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorDiana C. Navarro, Diana C. Navarro Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorTokio Sano, Tokio Sano Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorPaul D. Robbins, Paul D. Robbins Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorLaura J. Niedernhofer, Laura J. Niedernhofer Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorJames L. Kirkland, Corresponding Author James L. Kirkland Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA Correspondence James L. Kirkland, Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street, S.W., Rochester, MN 55905, USA. Tel.: +1 507 266 9151; fax: +1 507 293 3853; e-mail:Kirkland.james@mayo.eduSearch for more papers by this author Yi Zhu, Yi Zhu Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USACo-first authors.Search for more papers by this authorTamara Tchkonia, Tamara Tchkonia Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USACo-first authors.Search for more papers by this authorTamar Pirtskhalava, Tamar Pirtskhalava Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorAdam C. Gower, Adam C. Gower Section of Computational Biomedicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USASearch for more papers by this authorHusheng Ding, Husheng Ding Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNino Giorgadze, Nino Giorgadze Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorAllyson K. Palmer, Allyson K. Palmer Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorYuji Ikeno, Yuji Ikeno Departments of Pathology, Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA Research Service, Geriatric Research and Education Clinical Center, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USASearch for more papers by this authorGene B. Hubbard, Gene B. Hubbard Departments of Pathology, Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, The University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA Research Service, Geriatric Research and Education Clinical Center, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, USASearch for more papers by this authorMarc Lenburg, Marc Lenburg Section of Computational Biomedicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USASearch for more papers by this authorSteven P. O'Hara, Steven P. O'Hara Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNicholas F. LaRusso, Nicholas F. LaRusso Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorJordan D. Miller, Jordan D. Miller Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorCarolyn M. Roos, Carolyn M. Roos Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorGrace C. Verzosa, Grace C. Verzosa Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorNathan K. LeBrasseur, Nathan K. LeBrasseur Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorJonathan D. Wren, Jonathan D. Wren Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USASearch for more papers by this authorJoshua N. Farr, Joshua N. Farr Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorSundeep Khosla, Sundeep Khosla Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorMichael B. Stout, Michael B. Stout Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USASearch for more papers by this authorSara J. McGowan, Sara J. McGowan Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorHeike Fuhrmann-Stroissnigg, Heike Fuhrmann-Stroissnigg Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAditi U. Gurkar, Aditi U. Gurkar Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorJing Zhao, Jing Zhao Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorDebora Colangelo, Debora Colangelo Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAkaitz Dorronsoro, Akaitz Dorronsoro Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorYuan Yuan Ling, Yuan Yuan Ling Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorAmira S. Barghouthy, Amira S. Barghouthy Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorDiana C. Navarro, Diana C. Navarro Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorTokio Sano, Tokio Sano Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorPaul D. Robbins, Paul D. Robbins Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorLaura J. Niedernhofer, Laura J. Niedernhofer Department of Metabolism and Aging, The Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorJames L. Kirkland, Corresponding Author James L. Kirkland Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA Correspondence James L. Kirkland, Robert and Arlene Kogod Center on Aging, Mayo Clinic, 200 First Street, S.W., Rochester, MN 55905, USA. Tel.: +1 507 266 9151; fax: +1 507 293 3853; e-mail:Kirkland.james@mayo.eduSearch for more papers by this author First published: 09 March 2015 https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.12344Citations: 1,149 AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Summary The healthspan of mice is enhanced by killing senescent cells using a transgenic suicide gene. Achieving the same using small molecules would have a tremendous impact on quality of life and the burden of age-related chronic diseases. Here, we describe the rationale for identification and validation of a new class of drugs termed senolytics, which selectively kill senescent cells. By transcript analysis, we discovered increased expression of pro-survival networks in senescent cells, consistent with their established resistance to apoptosis. Using siRNA to silence expression of key nodes of this network, including ephrins (EFNB1 or 3), PI3Kδ, p21, BCL-xL, or plasminogen-activated inhibitor-2, killed senescent cells, but not proliferating or quiescent, differentiated cells. Drugs targeting these same factors selectively killed senescent cells. Dasatinib eliminated senescent human fat cell progenitors, while quercetin was more effective against senescent human endothelial cells and mouse BM-MSCs. The combination of dasatinib and quercetin was effective in eliminating senescent MEFs. In vivo, this combination reduced senescent cell burden in chronologically aged, radiation-exposed, and progeroid Ercc1−/Δ mice. In old mice, cardiac function and carotid vascular reactivity were improved 5 days after a single dose. Following irradiation of one limb in mice, a single dose led to improved exercise capacity for at least 7 months following drug treatment. Periodic drug administration extended healthspan in Ercc1−/∆ mice, delaying age-related symptoms and pathology, osteoporosis, and loss of intervertebral disk proteoglycans. These results demonstrate the feasibility of selectively ablating senescent cells and the efficacy of senolytics for alleviating symptoms of frailty and extending healthspan. Introduction Aging is the leading risk factor for the chronic diseases that account for the bulk of morbidity, mortality, and health costs (Goldman et al., 2013). A fundamental aging mechanism that likely contributes to chronic diseases and age-related dysfunction is cellular senescence (Kirkland, 2013b,a; Tchkonia et al., 2013; Kirkland & Tchkonia, 2014). Senescence refers to the essentially irreversible growth arrest that occurs when cells are subjected to potentially oncogenic insults (Tchkonia et al., 2013). Even though senescent cell abundance in aging or diseased tissues is low, achieving a maximum of 15 percent of nucleated cells in very old primates, senescent cells can secrete pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and extracellular matrix proteases, which together constitute the senescence-associated secretory phenotype or SASP (Herbig et al., 2006; Coppé et al., 2008; Kuilman et al., 2008). The SASP likely contributes to the correlation between senescent cell accumulation and local and systemic dysfunction and disease. Consistent with a role for cellular senescence in causing age-related dysfunction, clearing senescent cells by activating a drug-inducible ‘suicide’ gene enhances healthspan and delays multiple age-related phenotypes in genetically modified progeroid mice (Baker et al., 2011). Interestingly, despite only clearing 30 percent of the senescent cells, improvement in age-related phenotypes is profound. Thus, interventions that reduce the burden of senescent cells could ameliorate age-related disabilities and chronic diseases as a group (Tchkonia et al., 2013; Kirkland & Tchkonia, 2014). Despite their harsh internal and external microenvironments, senescent cells are viable. They survive even though they have active DNA damage responses, heightened metabolic flux, and increased local levels of SASP inflammatory cytokines and other factors that are able to induce apoptosis. Indeed, senescent cells are better able to withstand stresses such as serum deprivation than nonsenescent cells (Wang, 1995; Fridman & Lowe, 2003). In vivo, senescent cells appear to be removed by the immune system (Xue et al., 2007), rather than apoptosis or necrosis. Therefore, we hypothesized that (i) anti-apoptotic, pro-survival mechanisms could be up-regulated in senescent cells and (ii) interfering with these protective mechanisms might achieve selective elimination of senescent cells. Based on these hypotheses, here we identified several clinically used drugs that induce apoptosis preferentially of senescent cells in vitro and in vivo, leading to improved cardiovascular function and exercise endurance, reduced osteoporosis and frailty, and extended healthspan in several murine systems. Results The senescent transcriptome and anti-apoptotic pathways We first tested our hypotheses by comparing gene expression in senescent vs. nonsenescent cells using transcript array analysis (Fig. 1A–C). We focused on fat cell progenitors, or preadipocytes, as they are arguably one of the most abundant types of senescent cells in humans (Tchkonia et al., 2010). Cultures were split and senescence induced in half of the cells using 10 Gy of ionizing radiation. Twenty-five days later, gene expression was measured using Affymetrix arrays and differential expression patterns identified by principal component analysis (see Supporting materials and methods Data S1 for details). Overall patterns of gene expression differed substantially between senescent and nonsenescent preadipocytes isolated from the same subjects (Fig. 1A). Analyses of gene categories indeed revealed up-regulation of negative regulators of apoptosis (Fig. 1B) and anti-apoptotic gene sets (Fig. 1C) in senescent compared to nonsenescent cells (see also Supporting information Fig. S8). Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Senescent cells can be selectively targeted by suppressing pro-survival mechanisms. (A) Principal components analysis of detected features in senescent (green squares) vs. nonsenescent (red squares) human abdominal subcutaneous preadipocytes indicating major differences between senescent and nonsenescent preadipocytes in overall gene expression. Senescence had been induced by exposure to 10 Gy radiation (vs. sham radiation) 25 days before RNA isolation. Each square represents one subject (cell donor). (B, C) Anti-apoptotic, pro-survival pathways are up-regulated in senescent vs. nonsenescent cells. Heat maps of the leading edges of gene sets related to anti-apoptotic function, ‘negative regulation of apoptosis’ (B) and ‘anti-apoptosis’ (C), in senescent vs. nonsenescent preadipocytes are shown (red = higher; blue = lower). Each column represents one subject. Samples are ordered from left to right by proliferative state (N = 8). The rows represent expression of a single gene and are ordered from top to bottom by the absolute value of the Student t statistic computed between the senescent and proliferating cells (i.e., from greatest to least significance, see also Fig. S8). (D–E) Targeting survival pathways by siRNA reduces viability (ATPLite) of radiation-induced senescent human abdominal subcutaneous primary preadipocytes (D) and HUVECs (E) to a greater extent than nonsenescent sham-radiated proliferating cells. siRNA transduced on day 0 against ephrin ligand B1 (EFNB1), EFNB3, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase delta catalytic subunit (PI3KCD), cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (p21), and plasminogen-activated inhibitor-2 (PAI-2) messages induced significant decreases in ATPLite-reactive senescent (solid bars) vs. proliferating (open bars) cells by day 4 (100, denoted by the red line, is control, scrambled siRNA). N = 6; *P < 0.05; t-tests. (F–G) Decreased survival (crystal violet stain intensity) in response to siRNAs in senescent vs. nonsenescent preadipocytes (F) and HUVECs (G). N = 5; *P < 0.05; t-tests. (H) Network analysis to test links among EFNB-1, EFNB-3, PI3KCD, p21 (CDKN1A), PAI-1 (SERPINE1), PAI-2 (SERPINB2), BCL-xL, and MCL-1. Senolytic siRNAs We next employed RNA interference to identify potential ‘senolytic’ targets. We used the following rationale for the selection of senescence-associated genes to target with siRNAs. (i) Senescent cells rely on anti-apoptotic, pro-survival defenses to a greater extent than nonsenescent cells. (ii) Senescent cells have much in common with cancer cells, such as active DNA damage responses (Ghosal & Chen, 2013), except senescent cells do not divide. Thus pro-survival pathways, which when inhibited drive cancer cell apoptosis, might be good targets as long as the pathway is not linked to cell proliferation. (iii) Similarly to cancer cells, senescent cells are metabolically active, with increased glycolysis (Dorr et al., 2013). Thus, senescent cells may be more dependent on pathways that protect against metabolically induced apoptosis than are nonsenescent cells. (iv) Dependence receptors promote apoptosis unless they are prevented from doing so by the presence of their ligands (Goldschneider & Mehlen, 2010). Thus, senescent cells may rely more on dependence receptor ligands than nonsenescent cells, as is the case in cancer cells (Goldschneider & Mehlen, 2010; Xi et al., 2012). Therefore, we targeted anti-apoptotic pathway elements by RNA interference, including the dependence receptor ligands and metabolic pro-survival transcripts identified in oncology. Importantly, targets identified by this rationale have the potential to yield senolytics that also will have antitumor effects. Of the 39 transcripts selected for knockdown by siRNA transfection, at least 17 affected the viability of senescent cells more than the viability of nonsenescent cells (Supporting information Table S1). Of these, six triggered senescent cell death, but had little effect on proliferating, nonsenescent cells in two human cell types, preadipocytes (Fig. 1D,F) and endothelial cells (Fig. 1E,G). Interestingly, the senolytic transcripts included components of ephrin survival-regulating dependence receptor mechanisms (Goldschneider & Mehlen, 2010), ephrin ligand (EFN) B1, and EFNB3, as well as the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1A (p21), plasminogen-activated inhibitor-2 (PAI-2), the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase delta catalytic subunit (PI3KCD), a PI3K family member involved in regulating multiple cellular functions, including survival (Datta et al., 1999; Osaki et al., 2004), and BCL-xL, which regulates mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis and is the target of certain anticancer drugs (Minn et al., 1999; Leech et al., 2000). Interfering with expression of EFNB1 or 3, PI3KCD, p21, BCL-xL, or PAI-2 significantly reduced the viability (ATPLite intensity; Fig. 1D) and survival (crystal violet; Fig. 1F and Fig. S6) of senescent but not proliferating human abdominal subcutaneous preadipocytes. Reducing EFNB2 or 4 or PI3K isoforms other than PI3KCD had less or no effect (Fig. S2C; Table S1). siRNA transfection efficiencies and extent of mRNA knockdown were similar in senescent and proliferating preadipocytes (Fig. S1). Results were confirmed using second, distinct siRNAs or by Western immunoanalysis (Fig. S2A, B, & F). While proliferating human umbilical vein cells (HUVECs) tended to be generally susceptible to siRNAs under the conditions used, senescent HUVECs were more susceptible to EFNB1 and BCL-xL siRNAs than nonsenescent cells (Fig. 1E,G). EFNB1 or 3 and PI3KCD siRNAs also interfered with the viability of preadipocytes made senescent by serial subculturing compared to nonsenescent cells (Fig. S2D) and did not interfere with the viability of quiescent, differentiated preadipocytes (Fig. S2E). Results were confirmed using crystal violet to measure cell survival (Fig. 1G; Fig. S6). Based on potential associations among the genes targeted by senolytic siRNAs, we tested whether the gene products could be components of a common pro-survival signaling network (Fig. 1H). Network analysis of these proteins using the STRING database suggested interaction of the anti-apoptotic proteins that we identified in siRNA assays. Candidate senolytic drugs in vitro We next tested whether drugs that target gene products that protect senescent cells from apoptosis are senolytic in vitro. Of 46 agents tested, dasatinib (D) and quercetin (Q) showed particular promise in clearing senescent cells. D is a inhibitor of multiple tyrosine kinases, used for treating cancers (Montero et al., 2011), and is known to interfere with EFNB-dependent supprepression of apoptosis (Chang et al., 2008; Xi et al., 2012). D preferentially reduced viability and caused cell death of senescent human preadipocytes, but was much less effective on senescent HUVECs (Fig. 2A). Note that by day 3, proliferating preadipocytes increased by 2-5-fold in number vs. day 0 in the presence of D. The viability of nondividing, senescent preadipocytes from the same subjects decreased by 30–40% in the presence of 50 nm or greater D, indicating selective reduction in the viability of senescent cells. Q, a natural flavonol, inhibits PI3K, other kinases, and serpines (Olave et al., 2010; Bruning, 2013). In contrast to D, at low concentrations, Q reduced the viability and caused cell death of senescent HUVECs to a greater extent than proliferating cells, but was less effective on preadipocytes (Fig. 2B). Note that at 10 μm Q, nonsenescent HUVECs achieved a 2-3-fold increase in cell number between days 0 and 3, while parallel cultures of senescent cells were reduced by 50%, indicating selective killing of senescent cells. The combination of D+Q afforded selective killing of both senescent preadipocytes and endothelial cells (Fig. 2C-F). By day 3, the viability of nondividing senescent preadipocytes exposed to D+Q was reduced by ~70% compared to day 0, while nonsenescent, proliferating cells had increased by 2 - 4-fold. By day 3, the viability of senescent HUVECs treated with 10 μm Q and 100 nm D was reduced by ~50% compared to day 0. Parallel cultures of nonsenescent, proliferating HUVECs increased in number by 1.5-fold over the same period of time. This suggests that the combination of D+Q selectively targets a broader range of senescent cell types than either agent alone. In both senescent and nonsenescent cultured preadipocytes, D and Q reduced expression of the anti-apoptotic regulator PAI-2 (Fig. 2G,H). Figure 2Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Dasatinib and quercetin target senescent cells. (A) D is more effective in selectively reducing viability (ATPLite) of senescent preadipocytes than HUVECs. Preadipocytes and HUVECs were exposed to different concentrations of D for 3 days. The red line denotes plating densities on day 0 of nondividing senescent (set to 100%) as well as proliferating nonsenescent cells (also set to 100%). Preadipocyte data are means ± SEM of four experiments in each of four different subjects. HUVEC data are means ± SEM of five replicates at each concentration. (B) Q is more effective in selectively reducing viability (ATPLite) of senescent HUVECs than preadipocytes. Proliferating and senescent preadipocytes and HUVECs were exposed to different concentrations of Q for 3 days. Preadipocyte data are means ± SEM of four experiments in each of four different subjects. HUVEC data are means ± SEM of five replicates at each concentration. (C) Combining D and Q selectively reduced viability of both senescent preadipocytes and senescent HUVECs. Proliferating and senescent preadipocytes and HUVECs were exposed to a fixed concentration of Q and different concentrations of D for 3 days. Optimal Q concentrations for inducing death of senescent preadipocyte and HUVEC cells were 20 and 10 μm, respectively. (D) D and Q do not affect the viability of quiescent fat cells. Nonsenescent preadipocytes (proliferating) as well as nonproliferating, nonsenescent differentiated fat cells prepared from preadipocytes (differentiated), as well as nonproliferating preadipocytes that had been exposed to 10 Gy radiation 25 days before to induce senescence (senescent) were treated with D+Q for 48 h. N = 6 preadipocyte cultures isolated from different subjects. *P < 0.05; anova. 100% indicates ATPLite intensity at day 0 for each cell type and the bars represent the ATPLite intensity after 72 h. The drugs resulted in lower ATPLite in proliferating cells than in vehicle-treated cells after 72 h, but ATPLite intensity did not fall below that at day 0. This is consistent with inhibition of proliferation, and not necessarily cell death. Fat cell ATPLite was not substantially affected by the drugs, consistent with lack of an effect of even high doses of D+Q on nonproliferating, differentiated cells. ATPLite was lower in senescent cells exposed to the drugs for 72 h than at plating on day 0. As senescent cells do not proliferate, this indicates that the drugs decrease senescent cell viability. (E, F) D and Q cause more apoptosis of senescent than nonsenescent primary human preadipocytes (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling [TUNEL] assay). (E) D (200 nM) plus Q (20 μm) resulted in 65% apoptotic cells (TUNEL assay) after 12 h in senescent but not proliferating, nonsenescent preadipocyte cultures. Cells were from three subjects; four replicates; **P < 0.0001; anova. (F) Primary human preadipocytes were stained with DAPI to show nuclei or analyzed by TUNEL to show apoptotic cells. Senescence was induced by 10 Gy radiation 25 days previously. Proliferating, nonsenescent cells were exposed to D+Q for 24 h, and senescent cells from the same subjects were exposed to vehicle or D+Q. D+Q induced apoptosis in senescent, but not nonsenescent, cells (compare the green in the upper to lower right panels). The bars indicate 50 μm. (G) Effect of vehicle, D, Q, or D+Q on nonsenescent preadipocyte and HUVEC p21, BCL-xL, and PAI-2 by Western immunoanalysis. (H) Effect of vehicle, D, Q, or D+Q on preadipocyte on PAI-2 mRNA by PCR. N = 3; *P < 0.05; anova. Dasatinib and que