The current paper demonstrates that cholesterol and its hydroxylated derivative, 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC), inhibit cholesterol synthesis by two different mechanisms, both involving the proteins that control sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs), membrane-bound transcription factors that activate genes encoding enzymes of lipid synthesis. Using methyl-β-cyclodextrin as a delivery vehicle, we show that cholesterol enters cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells and elicits a conformational change in SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP), as revealed by the appearance of a new fragment in tryptic digests. This change causes SCAP to bind to Insigs, which are endoplasmic reticulum retention proteins that abrogate movement of the SCAP·SREBP complex to the Golgi apparatus where SREBPs are normally processed to their active forms. Direct binding of cholesterol to SCAP in intact cells was demonstrated by showing that a photoactivated derivative of cholesterol cross-links to the membrane domain of SCAP. The inhibitory actions of cholesterol do not require the isooctyl side chain or the Δ5-double bond of cholesterol, but they do require the 3β-hydroxyl group. 25-HC is more potent than cholesterol in eliciting SCAP binding to Insigs, but 25-HC does not cause a detectable conformational change in SCAP. Moreover, a photoactivated derivative of 25-HC does not cross-link to SCAP. These data imply that cholesterol interacts with SCAP directly by inducing it to bind to Insigs, whereas 25-HC works indirectly through a putative 25-HC sensor protein that elicits SCAP-Insig binding. The current paper demonstrates that cholesterol and its hydroxylated derivative, 25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC), inhibit cholesterol synthesis by two different mechanisms, both involving the proteins that control sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs), membrane-bound transcription factors that activate genes encoding enzymes of lipid synthesis. Using methyl-β-cyclodextrin as a delivery vehicle, we show that cholesterol enters cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells and elicits a conformational change in SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP), as revealed by the appearance of a new fragment in tryptic digests. This change causes SCAP to bind to Insigs, which are endoplasmic reticulum retention proteins that abrogate movement of the SCAP·SREBP complex to the Golgi apparatus where SREBPs are normally processed to their active forms. Direct binding of cholesterol to SCAP in intact cells was demonstrated by showing that a photoactivated derivative of cholesterol cross-links to the membrane domain of SCAP. The inhibitory actions of cholesterol do not require the isooctyl side chain or the Δ5-double bond of cholesterol, but they do require the 3β-hydroxyl group. 25-HC is more potent than cholesterol in eliciting SCAP binding to Insigs, but 25-HC does not cause a detectable conformational change in SCAP. Moreover, a photoactivated derivative of 25-HC does not cross-link to SCAP. These data imply that cholesterol interacts with SCAP directly by inducing it to bind to Insigs, whereas 25-HC works indirectly through a putative 25-HC sensor protein that elicits SCAP-Insig binding. Nearly 30 years ago, during early studies of feedback inhibition of cholesterol synthesis in cultured cells, it was noted that oxygenated sterols such as 25-hydroxycholesterol were more than 50-fold more potent than cholesterol in reducing the activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, the rate-controlling enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis (1Kandutsch A.A. Chen H.W. J. Biol. Chem. 1974; 249: 6057-6061Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 2Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1974; 249: 7306-7314Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 3Goldstein J.L. Faust J.R. Brunschede G.Y. Brown M.S. Kritchevsky D. Paoletti R. Holmes W.L. Lipids, Lipoproteins, and Drugs. Plenum, New York1975: 77-84Google Scholar, 4Kandutsch A.A. Chen H.W. Heiniger H.-J. Science. 1978; 201: 498-501Crossref PubMed Scopus (404) Google Scholar). These experiments were conducted by dissolving sterols in ethanol and adding them to protein-containing aqueous culture media in which cholesterol forms an amorphous suspension and thus has poor access to the interior of the cell. When cholesterol was delivered to cells in low density lipoprotein (LDL), 1The abbreviations used are: LDL, low density lipoprotein; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; 25-HC, 25-hydroxycholesterol; photo 25-HC, 6-azi-5α-cholestan-3β,25-diol; MCD, methyl-β-cyclodextrin; OSBP, oxysterol-binding protein; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; photocholesterol, 6-azi-5α-cholestan-3β-ol; PNGase F, peptide N-glycosidase F; siRNA, small interfering RNA; SCAP, SREBP cleavage-activating protein; SREBP, sterol regulatory element-binding protein; TM, transmembrane helix; CHO, Chinese hamster ovary; Tricine, N-[2-hydroxy-1, 1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine; HSV, herpes simplex virus. a physiologic carrier that enters cells through LDL receptors, the ability of cholesterol to suppress 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase was enhanced (5Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1974; 249: 5153-5162Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Later, when methods were devised to reconstitute LDL with sterol esters, it was observed that 25-hydroxycholesterol was only about 5-fold more potent than cholesterol when both sterol esters were reconstituted into LDL and delivered through LDL receptors (6Krieger M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1978; 75: 5052-5056Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar). The question of whether cholesterol itself is a regulator or whether it must be converted to an oxygenated metabolite, like 25-hydroxycholesterol, remained unresolved (7Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Science. 1986; 232: 34-47Crossref PubMed Scopus (4383) Google Scholar). In view of this ambiguity, studies of feedback regulation in our laboratory have generally used a mixture of cholesterol and 25-hydroxy-cholesterol in a 10:1 molar ratio added in ethanol. In recent years the mechanism of sterol feedback regulation at the transcriptional level has been elucidated, but the issue of 25-hydroxycholesterol versus cholesterol as a physiologic regulator remains unsettled. Transcriptional regulation is mediated by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs), a three-member family of membrane-bound transcription factors (8Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 11041-11048Crossref PubMed Scopus (1110) Google Scholar). The NH2-terminal domains of SREBPs are transcription factors of the basic helix-loop-helix-leucine zipper variety. This domain is followed by a membrane attachment domain consisting of two transmembrane helices, which is followed by a COOH-terminal regulatory domain. SREBPs are oriented in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membranes in a hairpin fashion with their NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal domains facing the cytosol. Immediately after synthesis, SREBPs form a complex with SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP), a polytopic ER protein with eight membrane-spanning helices. In sterol-depleted cells, SCAP escorts its bound SREBP to the Golgi apparatus where the SREBP is processed sequentially by two membrane-embedded proteases that release the NH2-terminal domain so that it can enter the nucleus where it activates transcription of the gene encoding 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase and more than 30 other genes whose products are necessary for lipid synthesis (9Goldstein J.L. Rawson R.B. Brown M.S. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2002; 397: 139-148Crossref PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar, 10Horton J.D. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Clin. Invest. 2002; 109: 1125-1131Crossref PubMed Scopus (3838) Google Scholar). When 25-hydroxycholesterol is delivered to cells in ethanol or when cholesterol is delivered in LDL, SCAP becomes trapped in the ER. The bound-SREBP is no longer carried to the Golgi apparatus, and the NH2-terminal domain cannot enter the nucleus (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar). As a result, transcription of the lipid biosynthetic genes declines. Retention of the SCAP·SREBP complex in the ER is mediated by the sterol-induced binding of SCAP to Insigs, which are resident proteins of the ER membrane (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar, 12Yabe D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 12753-12758Crossref PubMed Scopus (426) Google Scholar). Cultured cells express two Insig isoforms, designated Insig-1 and Insig-2, that are closely related in amino acid sequence and have the same membrane topology (13Feramisco J.D. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 279: 8487-8496Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar). When mixtures of cholesterol and 25-hydroxycholesterol are added to cultured cells, SCAP is induced to bind to Insig-1 and Insig-2, as revealed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments and by detection of the complex by blue native gel electrophoresis (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar, 12Yabe D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 12753-12758Crossref PubMed Scopus (426) Google Scholar). Mutant forms of SCAP harboring any one of three point mutations fail to bind Insig-1 and Insig-2, and thus they constitutively transport SREBPs to the Golgi even in the presence of sterols (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar, 14Yabe D. Xia Z.-P. Adams C.M. Rawson R.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 16672-16677Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar). The mechanism by which cholesterol regulates SCAP·Insig binding was disclosed recently by studies demonstrating that SCAP directly binds cholesterol (15Radhakrishnan A. Sun L.-P. Kwon H.J. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2004; 15: 259-268Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar) and thereby undergoes a conformational change that allows it to bind to Insigs (16Adams C.M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 10647-10652Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar). In one set of experiments, we isolated sealed ER membrane vesicles from cholesterol-depleted cells, taking advantage of the observation that cholesterol can be solubilized by methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MCD) in a form that allows it to partition into membranes (17Kilsdonk E.P.C. Yancey P.G. Stoudt G.W. Bangerter F.W. Johnson W.J. Phillips M.C. Rothblat G.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 17250-17256Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (706) Google Scholar). We incubated the cholesterol-depleted membranes with cholesterol·MCD complexes and then digested them with trypsin. The digests were subjected to electrophoresis in SDS-polyacrylamide gels and blotted with an antibody against the luminal loop that lies between transmembrane segments 7 and 8 of SCAP (18Sakai J. Nohturfft A. Cheng D. Ho Y.K. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 20213-20221Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (199) Google Scholar). In membranes from sterol-depleted cells, trypsin cut at arginines 496 and 747, generating a fragment of 37 kDa. When the membranes were treated with cholesterol·MCD, a previously sequestered arginine at position 503 was exposed, and trypsin cleavage gave a smaller product of 35 kDa (16Adams C.M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 10647-10652Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar, 19Brown A.J. Sun L. Feramisco J.D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2002; 10: 237-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar). This cholesterol-induced conformational change in SCAP was enhanced when cells expressed excess Insigs, and this increase was not seen with the sterol-resistant SCAP mutants that do not bind Insigs (16Adams C.M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 10647-10652Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar). The suggestion that this conformational change reflects direct binding of cholesterol to SCAP was supported strongly by the recent finding that the purified, detergent-solubilized membrane domain of SCAP binds [3H]cholesterol with stereospecificity and saturation kinetics (15Radhakrishnan A. Sun L.-P. Kwon H.J. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2004; 15: 259-268Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). Competition experiments revealed that binding required the 3β-hydroxyl group of cholesterol, but it did not require the side chain (15Radhakrishnan A. Sun L.-P. Kwon H.J. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2004; 15: 259-268Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). Although the above-cited studies provide a mechanism for feedback regulation by cholesterol, they raise questions about whether 25-hydroxycholesterol acts by the same mechanism. Indeed, in the direct binding studies, SCAP failed to bind 25-hydroxycholesterol (15Radhakrishnan A. Sun L.-P. Kwon H.J. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2004; 15: 259-268Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). Moreover, 25-hydroxycholesterol did not induce a conformational change in SCAP when added to membranes in vitro (16Adams C.M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 10647-10652Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar). In the current studies, we use a variety of methods to demonstrate that cholesterol acts in intact cells by binding to SCAP and inducing a conformational change, whereas 25-hydroxycholesterol neither binds nor induces a conformational change. Nevertheless, both sterol regulators block SREBP processing by inducing SCAP to bind to Insig. These studies strongly suggest that cells must contain another protein that recognizes 25-hydroxy-cholesterol and thereby induces SCAP to bind to Insigs. Materials—We obtained sterols from Steraloids, Inc.; MCD and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin from Cyclodextrin Technologies Development, Inc.; trypsin (type 1 from bovine pancreas), soybean trypsin inhibitor, chymotrypsin, and Triton X-100 from Sigma; peptide N-glycosidase F (PNGase F) from New England Biolabs, Inc.; Nonidet P-40 Alternative from Calbiochem; and FuGENE 6 reagent from Roche Applied Science. Complexes of sterols with MCD were prepared as previously described (19Brown A.J. Sun L. Feramisco J.D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2002; 10: 237-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar). Lipoprotein-deficient serum (d > 1.215 g/ml) was prepared by ultracentrifugation (20Goldstein J.L. Basu S.K. Brown M.S. Methods Enzymol. 1983; 98: 241-260Crossref PubMed Scopus (1287) Google Scholar). Solutions of sodium mevalonate and compactin were prepared as previously described (21Brown M.S. Faust J.R. Goldstein J.L. Kaneko I. Endo A. J. Biol. Chem. 1978; 253: 1121-1128Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Solutions of sodium oleate were prepared as previously described (20Goldstein J.L. Basu S.K. Brown M.S. Methods Enzymol. 1983; 98: 241-260Crossref PubMed Scopus (1287) Google Scholar). Chemical Syntheses—6-Azi-5α-cholestan-3β-ol (photocholesterol) was prepared from 6-keto-5α-cholestan-3β-ol as previously described (22Thiele C. Hannah M.J. Fahrenholz F. Huttner W.B. Nat. Cell Biol. 2000; 2: 42-49Crossref PubMed Scopus (461) Google Scholar). 6-Azi-5α-cholestan-3β,25-diol (photo 25-hydroxycholesterol) was prepared similarly from 6-keto-5α-cholestan-3β,25-diol. The latter compound was prepared by a modification of the method of Tavares et al. (23Tavares R. Randoux T. Braekman J.-C. Daloze D. Tetrahedron. 1993; 49: 5079-5090Crossref Scopus (13) Google Scholar). In brief, 25-HC (1 g) was treated with t-butyldiphenylsilyl chloride (2.8 equivalents) and imidazole (6.4 equivalents) in dimethylformamide (0.07 m) for 16 h at room temperature. After extractive work-up and chromatographic purification, the corresponding silylether was obtained in 74% yield (1.2 g). This material was dissolved in dry tetrahydrofuran (0.06 m) and treated with a 1 m BH3 solution in tetrahydrofuran (3.8 equivalents). After stirring for 48 h at room temperature, the resulting solution was added to a solution of pyridinium chlorochromate (10 g) in dichloromethane (150 ml). After refluxing for 1 h, the mixture was filtered over florisil, and the filtrate was concentrated and purified by silica gel chromatography to provide 1.04 g (85%) of the corresponding 6-keto derivative. 6-Keto-5α-cholestan-3β,25-diol was obtained by deprotection of the silylether with tetrabutylammonium fluoride (2.6 equivalents) in tetrahydrofuran (0.17 m). Extraction and purification by silica gel chromatography provided 0.6 g of pure 6-keto-5α-cholestan-3β,25-diol (90% yield). Plasmids—The following plasmids have been described previously. pCMV-SCAP, pCMV-SCAP(D443N), pCMV-SCAP(Y298C), and pCMV-SCAP(L315F) encode wild type and mutant versions of hamster SCAP under control of the cytomegalovirus promoter (14Yabe D. Xia Z.-P. Adams C.M. Rawson R.B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 16672-16677Crossref PubMed Scopus (78) Google Scholar, 18Sakai J. Nohturfft A. Cheng D. Ho Y.K. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 20213-20221Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (199) Google Scholar). pCMV-Insig1-Myc and pCMV-Insig2-Myc encode human Insig-1 and Insig-2, respectively, with six tandem copies of the c-Myc epitope tag at their COOH termini (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar, 12Yabe D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 12753-12758Crossref PubMed Scopus (426) Google Scholar). pTK-HSV-SREBP2 encodes human SREBP with an NH2-terminal HSV epitope tag, under control of the thymidine kinase promoter (24Hua X. Sakai J. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 10379-10384Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (170) Google Scholar). pTK-HSV-SCAP encodes wild type SCAP with two copies of the HSV epitope tag at the NH2 terminus (25Nohturfft A. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 17243-17250Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (164) Google Scholar); and pCMV-CBP-FLAG-SCAP(TM1–6)-Myc encodes (5′ to 3′) a calmodulin-binding protein tag, a FLAG epitope, the first six transmembrane segments of hamster SCAP (amino acids 1–448), and three tandem copies of the c-Myc epitope (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar). Buffers—The following buffers were used: Buffer A contains 50 mm Hepes-KOH, pH 7.4, 250 mm sucrose, 10 mm KCl, 1.5 mm MgCl2, 5 mm sodium EGTA, 5 mm sodium EDTA. Buffer B contains 10 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 100 mm NaCl, 1% (w/v) SDS, and protease inhibitor mixture (25 μg/ml N-acetyl-leucinal-leucinal-norleucinal, 1 μg/ml pepstatin A, 2 μg/ml aprotinin, 10 μg/ml leupeptin, 200 μm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride). Buffer C contains 20 mm Hepes-KOH, pH 7.6, 25% (v/v) glycerol, 0.42 m NaCl, 1.5 mm MgCl2, 1 mm sodium EDTA, 1 mm sodium EGTA, and protease inhibitor mixture. Buffer D contains 250 mm Tris-HCl, pH 6.8, 10% SDS, 25% glycerol, 0.2% (w/v) bromphenol blue, and 5% (v/v) 2-mercaptoethanol. Buffer E contains 40 mm Hepes-KOH, pH 7.4, 2 mm magnesium acetate, and protease inhibitor mixture. Tissue Culture Media—Medium A is a 1:1 mixture of Ham's F-12 medium and Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 100 units/ml penicillin and 100 μg/ml streptomycin sulfate. Medium B is medium A supplemented with 5% (v/v) fetal calf serum. Medium C is medium B supplemented with 5 μg/ml cholesterol, 1 mm sodium mevalonate, and 20 μm sodium oleate. Medium D is medium A supplemented with 5% newborn calf lipoprotein-deficient serum, 50 μm sodium compactin, and 50 μm sodium mevalonate. Medium E is medium D supplemented with 1% (w/v) hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin. Medium F is Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (low glucose) containing 100 units/ml penicillin and 100 μg/ml streptomycin sulfate. Cell Culture—Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) K1 cells and SRD-13A cells (a SCAP null mutant clone derived from γ-irradiated CHO-7 cells (26Rawson R.B. DeBose-Boyd R.A. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 28549-28556Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar)) were grown in monolayer at 37 °C in an atmosphere of 8–9% CO2 and maintained in medium B and medium C, respectively. SV-589 cells (an immortalized line of human fibroblasts expressing the SV40 large T antigen (27Yamamoto T. Davis C.G. Brown M.S. Schneider W.J. Casey M.L. Goldstein J.L. Russell D.W. Cell. 1984; 39: 27-38Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (979) Google Scholar)) were grown in monolayer at 37 °C in 5% CO2 and maintained in medium F supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. Analysis of SREBP Processing in CHO Cells—On day 0, the cells were set up for experiments in medium B at 7 × 105 cells/100-mm dish. On day 1, the cells were washed twice with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), and switched to medium D or medium E for varying times of incubation as described in the figure legends. Following incubation, the cells were washed once with cold PBS, then treated with 500 μl of buffer B, and scraped into 1.5-ml tubes on ice. The cells were passed through a 22-gauge needle 11 times and then shaken for 20 min at room temperature using a Vortex Genie 2 (Fisher). The protein concentration of each total cell extract was measured (BCA kit; Pierce) after which an aliquot of cell extract (25 μg) was mixed with 0.25 volume of buffer D, heated for 7 min at 95 °C, and then subjected to 8% SDS-PAGE and immunoblot analysis. Transient Transfection and Fractionation of SRD-13A Cells—On day 0, the cells were set up for experiments in medium C at 7.5 × 105 cells/100-mm dish. On day 2, the cells were transfected in medium B with plasmids by using FuGENE 6 reagent as described (26Rawson R.B. DeBose-Boyd R.A. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 28549-28556Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (151) Google Scholar). The total amount of DNA in each transfection was adjusted to 4–7 μg/dish by the addition of pcDNA3 mock vector. After incubation at 37 °C for 24 h, the cells were washed twice with PBS and switched to medium D or medium E for varying times of incubation as described in the figure legends. The cells were harvested, and nuclear extracts in buffer C (28DeBose-Boyd R.A. Brown M.S. Li W.-P. Nohturfft A. Goldstein J.L. Espenshade P.J. Cell. 1999; 99: 703-712Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar) and 20,000 × g membrane fractions in buffer A (19Brown A.J. Sun L. Feramisco J.D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2002; 10: 237-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar) were prepared as described in the indicated reference. Blue Native-PAGE for Detection of SCAP·Insig-1 Complex—Aliquots of the 20,000 × g membrane fraction were resuspended in buffer E containing 0.4% (w/v) Nonidet P-40 Alternative and then mixed with an equal volume of buffer E containing no detergent. After incubation on ice for 30 min, detergent-insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 1 × 105 × g for 30 min at 4 °C. The samples were then analyzed by 4–16% blue native-PAGE as described (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar). Sterol Treatment of Membranes in Vitro—Aliquots (100 μg) of the 20,000 × g membrane fraction were resuspended in buffer A with or without sterol·MCD complex to give a final volume of 500 μl. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 20 min and then centrifuged at 20,000 × g at 4 °C for 10 min. Buffer was aspirated from the resulting membrane pellets, and the membranes were resuspended in buffer A for subsequent photoaffinity labeling and/or protease treatment. Photoaffinity Labeling—All of the experiments using photoactive sterols were performed in the dark. Irradiation of membranes in vitro was performed using a portable ultraviolet lamp (UVP model UVL-28, peak transmission at 365 nm) applied to the samples contained in 1.5-ml tubes on ice for 10–15 min. Irradiation of intact transfected SRD-13A cells used a GE Black light bulb (model F40BLB) placed at a distance of 11 cm from open 100-mm dishes of cells for 20 min at room temperature. Proteolytic Cleavage of SCAP—Our previously described protocol (16Adams C.M. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 10647-10652Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar, 19Brown A.J. Sun L. Feramisco J.D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2002; 10: 237-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar) was modified as follows. Aliquots (100 μg) of the 20,000 × g membrane fraction from transfected SRD-13A cells were resuspended in 135 μl of buffer A. To each tube was added 2 μg of trypsin (in 5 μl), and the samples were incubated at 30 °C for 30 min. Trypsin digestion was stopped by the addition of 100 μg of soybean trypsin inhibitor (in 5 μl). PNGase F treatment, acetone precipitation, and resuspension in buffer D were performed as described (19Brown A.J. Sun L. Feramisco J.D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Mol. Cell. 2002; 10: 237-245Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (341) Google Scholar). In experiments using chymotrypsin, 50 μg of membranes were resuspended in buffer A containing 1% Triton X-100 and 30 μg of chymotrypsin to give a final volume of 68 μl. The samples were incubated at 30 °C for 30 min and then moved to ice for 10 min before mixing with 14 μl of buffer D and heating at 95 °C for 5 min. Trypsin-treated samples and chymotrypsin-treated samples were analyzed on 12 or 15% Tris-Tricine gels, respectively, except as noted in the legend to Fig. 9B. RNA Interference—Single-stranded small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) were synthesized by the University of Texas Southwestern RNA Oligonucleotide Synthesis Core. Complementary single-stranded siRNAs were annealed into duplexes at a final concentration of 20 μm. The oligonucleotides used to generate duplex siRNA (sense/antisense) were as follows: human Insig-1, UGGUGUCUAUCAGUAUACATT/UGUAUACUGAUAGACACCUTT and CCAGUGCUAAAUUGGAUUUTT/AAAUCCAAUUUAGCACUGGTT; human Insig-2, UCUCCAGAUUUCCUCUAUGTT/CAUAGAGGAAAUCUGGAGATT and GUGCUAAAGUGGAUUUCGATT/UCGAAAUCCACUUUAGCACTT; and green fluorescent protein, CAGCCACAACGUCUAUAUCTT/GAUAUAGACGUUGUGGCUGTT. On day 0, SV-589 cells were set up at a density of 1.75 × 105 cells/100-mm dish in medium F supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. On day 1, the cells were washed once with 8 ml of PBS, refed with 3 ml of medium F (without antibiotics), and then transfected with siRNA using a ratio of 10 μl of OligofectAMINE™ reagent (Invitrogen) to 1050 pmol of siRNA duplexes/dish (added in a volume of 1 ml) as described by the manufacturer. After incubation at 37 °C for 4 h, the cells received additional medium to give a final volume of 7 ml of medium F containing fetal calf serum at a final concentration of 10%. On day 4, after incubation for 3 days, the cells were used for experiments. Quantification of cellular mRNAs targeted for knockdown was done by real time PCR (29Liang G. Yang J. Horton J.D. Hammer R.E. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 9520-9528Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (527) Google Scholar). Immunoblot Analysis—After SDS-PAGE electrophoresis, the proteins were transferred to Hybond-C extra nitrocellulose filters (Millipore). The immunoblots were performed at room temperature using the following primary antibodies: 5 μg/ml of IgG-7D4, a mouse monoclonal antibody against the NH2 terminus of hamster SREBP-2 (30Yang J. Brown M.S. Ho Y.K. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1995; 270: 12152-12161Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar); 5 μg/ml of IgG-9D5, a mouse monoclonal antibody against hamster SCAP (18Sakai J. Nohturfft A. Cheng D. Ho Y.K. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 20213-20221Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (199) Google Scholar); 5 μg/ml of IgG-1D2, a mouse monoclonal antibody against the NH2 terminus of human SREBP-2 (12Yabe D. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 12753-12758Crossref PubMed Scopus (426) Google Scholar); 1 μg/ml of IgG-9E10, a mouse monoclonal antibody against c-Myc (11Yang T. Espenshade P.J. Wright M.E. Yabe D. Gong Y. Aebersold R. Goldstein J.L. Brown M.S. Cell. 2002; 110: 489-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (795) Google Scholar); a 1:15,000 dilution of IgG-HSV-Tag (Novagen); and a 1:5,000 dilution of a rabbit polyclonal antiserum 181 against the NH2 terminus of hamster SREBP-1c. This latter antibody (previously undescribed) was prepared by immunizing rabbits with a bacterially produced and purified fusion protein encoding an NH2-terminal His6 tag, followed by amino acids 1–125 of hamster SREBP-1c (31Shimano H. Horton J.D. Hammer R.E. Shimomura I. Brown M.S. Goldstein J.L. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 98: 1575-1584Crossref PubMed Scopus (699) Google Scholar). For all of