More information is needed about genetic factors that initiate development of pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasms—the most common precursors of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. We show that more than 99% of the earliest-stage, lowest-grade, pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasm-1 lesions contain mutations in KRAS, p16/CDKN2A, GNAS, or BRAF. These findings could improve our understanding of the development and progression of these premalignant lesions. More information is needed about genetic factors that initiate development of pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasms—the most common precursors of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. We show that more than 99% of the earliest-stage, lowest-grade, pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasm-1 lesions contain mutations in KRAS, p16/CDKN2A, GNAS, or BRAF. These findings could improve our understanding of the development and progression of these premalignant lesions. Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer death in the United State.1Vincent A. et al.Lancet. 2011; 378: 607-620Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1710) Google Scholar Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasms (PanINs) are the most common precursor to invasive pancreatic adenocarcinoma.2Hruban R.H. et al.Clin Cancer Res. 2000; 6: 2969-2972PubMed Google Scholar They are microscopic lesions (<5 mm diameter), and almost always too small to be identified by current imaging. Low-grade PanINs (PanIN-1) are common and their prevalence increases with age, whereas high-grade PanINs are uncommon and usually are found in pancreata with invasive pancreatic cancer. Multiple PanINs of all grades frequently are observed in individuals with inherited susceptibility to pancreatic cancer.3Shi C. et al.Clin Cancer Res. 2009; 15: 7737-7743Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar More than 90% of invasive adenocarcinomas of the pancreas harbor oncogenic mutations in KRAS whereas BRAF mutations occur in a small subset of KRAS-wild-type pancreatic cancers.1Vincent A. et al.Lancet. 2011; 378: 607-620Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1710) Google Scholar, 4Jones S. et al.Science. 2008; 321: 1801-1806Crossref PubMed Scopus (3043) Google Scholar Almost all invasive pancreatic cancers inactivate p16/CDKN2A. GNAS is mutated in approximately 60% of intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs), and in some invasive pancreatic cancers arising in association with an IPMN.5Wu J. et al.Sci Transl Med. 2011; 3 (92ra66)Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar Several genetic alterations identified in invasive pancreatic adenocarcinomas also are present in PanINs, with evidence of increasing prevalence of these alterations with PanIN grade.2Hruban R.H. et al.Clin Cancer Res. 2000; 6: 2969-2972PubMed Google Scholar However, the genes responsible for early PanIN development remain poorly understood. Thus, a meta-analysis evaluating studies of mutant KRAS prevalence in PanINs found that among patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, KRAS mutations were detected by conventional methods in 36% of PanIN-1A, 44% of PanIN-1B, and 87% of high-grade PanIN lesions (PanIN-2 and PanIN-3).6Lohr M. et al.Neoplasia. 2005; 7: 17-23Crossref PubMed Scopus (252) Google Scholar Data such as these indicate that KRAS mutations are more involved after PanIN initiation; genetic alterations that initiate tumorigenesis should have the same prevalence, independent of grade. The goal of the current study was to use more sensitive mutation detection methods to obtain a more detailed genetic understanding of early PanIN development. For this purpose, first we used laser capture to microdissect 169 PanINs (50 PanIN-1A, 52 PanIN-1B, 45 PanIN-2, and 22 PanIN-3 lesions) from 89 patients with benign and malignant pancreatic diseases (Supplementary Table 1; Figure 1A), invasive pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas from 12 patients, and normal pancreatic ducts from 20 patients. After DNA isolation and whole-genome amplification, DNA was analyzed for somatic mutations in KRAS, BRAF, GNAS, and p16/CDKN2A using pyrosequencing and high-resolution melt-curve analysis. The limit of detection of these assays is approximately 5% (ie, mutant alleles can be detected at concentrations of 5% or more [mutant: wild-type alleles, 1:20, cells, 1:10]) (see Supplementary Materials and Methods section). By using pyrosequencing, KRAS codon 12 mutations were detected in 46 (92.0%) of 50 PanIN-1A, 48 (92.3%) of 52 PanIN-1B, 42 (93.3%) of 45 PanIN-2, and 21 (95.4%) of 22 PanIN-3 lesions (Supplementary Table 2). Occasional mutations of KRAS codon 13 and codon 61 were identified (Supplementary Table 2), and a second nondominant KRAS mutation was found in 6 of 169 PanINs. No evidence of KRAS amplification was found. Melt-curve analysis confirmed the presence of KRAS gene mutations in every sample that was positive by pyrosequencing (Supplementary Figure 1A). Overall, 163 of 169 (96.4%) PanINs harbored KRAS mutations. No KRAS mutations were identified in normal pancreatic duct samples (Supplementary Table 2). Five of the 169 PanIN lesions tested by pyrosequencing had a second minor KRAS codon 12 mutation. Many PanIN-1 lesions had low mutant KRAS concentrations (mean, ∼20% of alleles by pyrosequencing, Supplementary Table 3), perhaps explaining why prior studies reported a lower prevalence of KRAS mutations in low-grade PanINs. To check the purity of our laser capture microdissection, we repeated the microdissections from 16 of the PanINs, using another set of slides. The mutant KRAS concentrations in DNA from the second microdissection were not significantly different from those of the first microdissections (Supplementary Materials and Methods). We also analyzed mutant KRAS concentrations in invasive pancreatic adenocarcinomas, and these samples had close to the concentrations of mutant KRAS one would expect if they consisted entirely of KRAS-mutant cancer cells without any contaminating wild-type (and presumably non-neoplastic) cells (mean, 42.5% of KRAS alleles, not significantly different from the mean mutant KRAS allele concentration in PanIN-3 lesions). Indeed, we found that the average concentration of mutant KRAS alleles in PanINs increased significantly with increasing grade of PanIN (Figure 1C, Figure 2). These results indicate that virtually all PanINs harbor KRAS mutations. However, in the earliest PanIN lesions, these mutations are generally present in only a fraction of the cells comprising the lesion. The percentage of mutant KRAS cells in the PanIN progressively increases with the PanIN grade, consistent with a gradual expansion of the KRAS-mutant clone as the PanIN progresses. We then sought to determine if mutations in other genes are present in the few KRAS–wild-type PanINs, particularly low-grade PanINs. Because prior studies have found that TP53 and SMAD4 mutations do not appear until late in the neoplastic progression, we focused on BRAF because it sometimes is mutant in KRAS wild-type cancers; on p16/CDKN2A because loss of p16/CDKN2A expression has been found in some early PanINs; and GNAS because it commonly is mutated in another type of premalignant pancreatic lesion (IPMNs).5Wu J. et al.Sci Transl Med. 2011; 3 (92ra66)Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar Although p16/CDKN2A mutations were identified in only 17 of 147 PanIN-1/2 lesions (11.5%), they were detected more often in KRAS–wild-type PanINs than in KRAS-mutant PanINs (P = .0209). A similar trend was noted for GNAS mutations, which were the only mutations identified in 2 PanINs (P = .0886; Figure 2). Interestingly, similar to what was found for some IPMNs,5Wu J. et al.Sci Transl Med. 2011; 3 (92ra66)Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar among PanIN-1/2 lesions with both GNAS and KRAS mutations, mutant GNAS concentrations were higher than mutant KRAS (P = .0084, paired t test) (Supplementary Table 2), suggesting that low mutant KRAS concentrations in PanIN samples were not simply the result of contamination with DNA from nearby stromal cells. It also suggests that in some PanINs, the KRAS mutation arose later than the GNAS mutation. There were no histologic differences in cell morphology within PanIN-1 lesions with low vs high concentrations of either mutant KRAS or GNAS (Supplementary Figure 1). GNAS mutations were detected more often in PanINs from patients with a diagnosis other than pancreatic adenocarcinoma (P = .0398). Overall, we were able to identify at least one mutation in KRAS, GNAS p16/CDKN2A, or BRAF in all but 1 of 169 PanINs (Supplementary Table 1, Supplementary Table 2). No mutant KRAS or GNAS was detected in this one wild-type PanIN (patient 72), even with the sensitive techniques we used (detection limit <1%). To confirm the prevalence of KRAS and GNAS mutations in PanINs, we also conducted an independent analysis of an additional 37 PanIN lesions (11 PanIN-1, 20 PanIN-2, and 7 PanIN-3 lesions) using 2 additional ultrasensitive technologies: digital ligation (limit of detection, 1/200 alleles) and Beads, Emulsion, Amplification (BEAM)ing (limit of detection, 1/1000 alleles) (Supplementary Materials and Methods), and found KRAS mutations in 94.6% of PanINs and GNAS mutations in 11.4% (Supplementary Table 4), with complete concordance of the mutation results with both platforms. A second nondominant KRAS mutation was found more often using these methods than by pyrosequencing, consistent with the lower limit of detection of these assays. These results indicate that somatic mutations are required for the early development of virtually all PanINs. Our results are consistent with observations in genetically engineered mouse models in which mouse PanINs can be initiated by oncogenic KRAS.7Hingorani S.R. et al.Cancer Cell. 2003; 4: 437-450Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1738) Google Scholar Although low-grade PanIN cells have some metaplastic features, our results do not support the hypothesis that PanINs begin as metaplasias and only subsequently acquire genetic alterations. If this were true, more low-grade (early) PanINs would lack oncogenic mutations. (We found only 1 of 102 PanIN-1 lesions lacked a mutation.) In prior studies, we have examined the metaplastic lesion known as acinar-to-ductal metaplasia for evidence of genetic alterations (mutant KRAS and telomere length analysis) and did not find evidence from this analysis that acinar-to-ductal metaplasias are precursors to PanINs. The findings that many low-grade PanINs contain mixtures of mutant and wild-type KRAS cells, that GNAS mutation concentrations can be higher than KRAS mutation concentrations in the same PanIN, and that the average proportion of mutant KRAS within PanINs increases with PanIN grade, suggests that mutant KRAS alone provides only a modest selective advantage over neighboring cells. This finding suggests that the KRAS-mutant clone is partially restrained within the PanIN, possibly by oncogene-induced senescence8Caldwell M.E. et al.Oncogene. 2011 Aug 22; ([Epub ahead of print])PubMed Google Scholar, 9Lee K.E. et al.Cancer Cell. 2010; 18: 448-458Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (105) Google Scholar and this restraint likely is maintained until additional genetic and/or epigenetic events (such as p16/CDKN2A inactivation) occur. The driving force behind the expansion of cells within PanINs that do not harbor mutant KRAS is not certain. One possibility is that PanIN-initiating event(s) precede oncogenic KRAS mutations. However, our genome4Jones S. et al.Science. 2008; 321: 1801-1806Crossref PubMed Scopus (3043) Google Scholar and methylome10Vincent A. et al.Clin Cancer Res. 2011; 17: 4341-4354Crossref PubMed Scopus (128) Google Scholar studies indicate there are no other commonly mutated or epigenetically silenced10Vincent A. et al.Clin Cancer Res. 2011; 17: 4341-4354Crossref PubMed Scopus (128) Google Scholar genes in pancreatic cancers that stand out as candidate initiators of PanIN development. Telomere shortening is observed in almost all low-grade PanINs11van Heek N.T. et al.Am J Pathol. 2002; 161: 1541-1547Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (280) Google Scholar but this phenomenon could be a consequence of activation of oncogene stress–induced senescence programs12Ben-Porath I. et al.J Clin Invest. 2004; 113: 8-13Crossref PubMed Scopus (321) Google Scholar rather than an initiator of PanINs. One unifying hypothesis to explain all these observations is that KRAS, and occasionally p16/CDKN2A, GNAS, or BRAF, mutations can initiate PanIN development, and that these mutant cells induce surrounding cells to proliferate. Such proliferation could come from autocrine and paracrine influences from KRAS-mutant PanIN cells, such as expression of sonic hedgehog, and other developmental genes,13Strobel O. et al.Gastroenterology. 2010; 138: 1166-1177Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar, 14Prasad N.B. et al.Cancer Res. 2005; 65: 1619-1626Crossref PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar as well as stress-inducing signals that lead to senescence,15Kuilman T. et al.Nat Rev Cancer. 2009; 9: 81-94Crossref PubMed Scopus (610) Google Scholar and induce metaplastic features in PanIN epithelial cells including adjacent cells lacking KRAS mutations. The authors thank Ms Bona Kim for providing the pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasm illustration (Figure 2). All elements of this investigation were approved by The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutional Review Board and written informed consent was obtained from all patients. PanINs were identified at the time of frozen-section analysis of pancreatic resection specimens by R.H.H. from 2007 to 2010 as microscopic papillary or flat noninvasive epithelial neoplasms arising in a pancreatic duct, composed of cuboidal to columnar cells with varying amounts of mucin and degrees of cytologic and architecture atypia. PanINs were graded further into PanIN-1A, PanIN-1B, PanIN-2, and PanIN-3 lesions based on the degree of cytologic and architectural atypia.1Hruban R.H. et al.Am J Surg Pathol. 2001; 25: 579-586Crossref PubMed Scopus (945) Google Scholar Frozen sections were placed on ultraviolet-irradiated, membrane-coated slides (Carl Zeiss Microimaging, München, Germany). Slides were stained with H&E. Briefly, nuclei were stained with hematoxylin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) for 10 minutes, and the cytoplasm was stained with eosin (Sigma-Aldrich) for 5 minutes after consecutive rehydration with 100%, 96%, and 70% ethanol for 1 minute each. The stained slides were microdissected within 2 hours by an LCM system (Leica LMD7000; Leica, Buffalo Grove, IL). Care was taken to ensure that PanINs were not pooled inadvertently. Pancreatic ducts that contained 2 different grades of PanINs within the same duct were excluded from dissection. We did not pool dissections of PanIN cells from different ducts even when they were on the same slide; these are probably different from PanINs. Because each tissue section is only 10-umol/L thick, a PanIN lesion is typically many sections deep. Therefore, we typically dissected cells from one PanIN from several adjacent slides (3–5 slides). Usually, a PanIN can be followed along adjacent tissue sections and can be identified from landmarks such as the shape of the duct and the morphology of the cells and of the surrounding areas of acinar cells and islets. In the first set of cases, 50 PanIN-1A, 52 PanIN-1B, 45 PanIN-2, and 22 PanIN-3 were obtained from 89 individual patients, including 53 patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (Supplementary Table 1). In the second set of cases, 37 PanINs were analyzed (11 PanIN-1, 20 PanIN-2, and 7 PanIN-3 lesions) from 32 individuals (Supplementary Table 3). Genomic DNA was extracted from the microdissected tissues using the QIAamp DNA Micro Kit (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). Whole-genome amplification was conducted for all extracted DNA samples with REPLI-g Mini Kit (Qiagen) and incubation time was 16 hours. DNA samples were quantified by Quantifiler (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) before and after whole-genome amplification. The mutational status of KRAS, GNAS, and BRAF was investigated by pyrosequencing. Ten nanograms of whole-genome amplified DNAs were polymerase chain reaction amplified with the PyroMark polymerase chain reaction Kit (Qiagen) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. After amplification, 20 μL of biotinylated polymerase chain reaction product was immobilized on streptavidin-coated sepharose beads (streptavidin sepharose high performance; GE Health care Bio-Sciences Corp, Piscataway, NJ). The purified biotinylated polymerase chain reaction product was released into the PyroMark Q24 (Biotage AB, Uppsala, Sweden) with PyroMark Gold reagents (Qiagen) containing 0.3 μmol/L sequencing primer and annealing buffer. In addition to detection of mutations of each gene, the peaks of pyrograms, indicating populations of mutant, were investigated in all samples. To determine the limit of detection of pyrosequencing for KRAS mutations, a stepwise dilution series (0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100%) was performed using the MiaPaCa2 pancreatic cancer cell line known to have a homozygous KRAS mutation (GGT>GTT, G12V). This analysis showed that pyrosequencing could identify mutant KRAS concentrations of 5% or more and accurately reflect mutant concentrations Figure 1B). To ensure that we accurately determined samples with low mutant KRAS concentrations, any samples with less than 10% mutant KRAS concentrations were rechecked by repeating the laser capture microdissection of adjacent slides of the same PanIN and then repeating the pyrosequencing. Representative pyrograms are shown in Figure 1D. There was no significant difference in mutant KRAS concentrations in the paired samples (Student paired t test). Although each PanIN was dissected to avoid all contaminating normal stromal cells, to ensure that our microdissections were not removing stromal cells near the basement membrane of the PanINs, we next repeated the laser microdissections of 6 PanIN lesions, this time dissecting the cytoplasm of the PanINs to avoid the basement membrane and any adjacent stromal cells. Again, we found no significant difference in mutant KRAS concentrations between these microdissected samples and the previous microdissections of the same PanINs. The mutational status of exons 1–2 of p16/CDKN2A was investigated with high-resolution melt-curve analysis. High-resolution melt-curve analysis targeting KRAS codons 12 and 13 also was performed on all samples to confirm results of the KRAS pyrosequencing. The polymerase chain reactions for high-resolution melt-curve analysis were 5 μL volume for each well containing 10 ng of whole-genome amplified DNAs, 2× concentration amplification buffer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), 0.3 mmol/L deoxynucleoside triphosphate mix, 1 mmol/L MgSO4, 0.02 U/μL Platinum pfx polymerase (Invitrogen), 8% dimethyl sulfoxide, 0.1 U/μL LcGreen+ dye (Idaho Tech, Salt Lake City, UT), and 200 nmol/L forward and reverse primers. All samples were tested in triplicate. In each polymerase chain reaction plate, 5 wells were allocated to wild-type control DNA and 1 well to nontemplate control to validate the polymerase chain reaction. For the KRAS assay, 3 wells of MiaPaCa2 DNA was included as a positive control for mutant KRAS. The germline DNA of patients with positive PanIN high-resolution melt-curve analysis results for p16/CDKN2A mutations also was analyzed by high-resolution melt-curve analysis or sequenced using Sanger sequencing to identify any germline p16/CDKN2A variants. No germline p16/CDKN2A variants were identified. After the polymerase chain reaction, the plate was transferred immediately to the LightScanner mutation analyzer (Idaho Tech), setting a melt temperature range between 72°C and 98°C. Scanning data were analyzed by the LightScanner software. A fluorescence difference of 5% was set as a cut-off level for identifying variant samples as suggested in previous reports and confirmed by our own dilution curves with positive controls.2Erali M. et al.Methods. 2010; 50: 250-261Crossref PubMed Scopus (122) Google Scholar Representative results of high-resolution melt-curve analysis are shown in Supplementary Figure 1B. For the 6 PanINs in the first set of 169 PanINs found to be wild-type for KRAS, we used digital melt curve analysis to test for low mutant DNA concentrations using the same conditions described earlier but analyzing PanIN DNA in 96 wells and 10 genome equivalents per well (limit of detection, <1%).3Zou H. et al.Gastroenterology. 2009; 136: 459-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar No mutations in KRAS were identified in any of these PanINs. For the one PanIN in the first set of 169 PanINs that was wild-type for all 4 genes tested, we also used digital melt curve analysis to test for low mutant DNA concentrations of GNAS. No GNAS mutation was identified in this PanIN. Aberrant KRAS amplification was evaluated with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Ten nanograms of DNA samples of wild-type control, positive control (Pa08C, pancreatic cancer cell line with aberrantly increased KRAS amplification), and PanIN samples were used as a template after being quantified precisely by the Quantifiler. Real-time detection of the emission intensity of SYBR Green was performed with the 7900HT Fast Real-Time polymerase chain reaction System (Applied Biosystems). Threshold cycles (Ct value) of samples were compared between wild-type control, positive control, and PanIN samples. Digital ligation was used to identify KRAS codon 12 and GNAS codon 201 mutations on the independent set of 37 PanINs and was performed as previously described.4Wu J. et al.Sci Transl Med. 2011; 3 (92ra66)Crossref Scopus (131) Google Scholar BEAMing assays were performed on the independent set of 37 PanINs to confirm the digital ligation results as previously described.5Diehl F. et al.Nat Med. 2008; 14: 985-990Crossref PubMed Scopus (1753) Google Scholar The sequences of the PCR primers used in this study are and their conditions are provided in Supplementary Table 5. Mean pyrogram peaks of each PanIN group were compared with the Mann–Whitney U test. We used a paired t test to analyze the differences in concentration of mutant between KRAS codon 12 and GNAS. The correlation between mutational status of the PanIN and the pathologic diagnosis of the lesion that led to the patient’s pancreatic resection was analyzed by the Fisher exact test. Association of mutational status of each gene also was analyzed by the Fisher exact test. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS Statistics 17.0 software (SPSS, Chicago, IL). A P value of less than .05 was considered statistically significant.Supplementary Table 1List of Patients Enrolled in This StudySexAgePathologic diagnosisPanINs analyzed1Male70Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 22Male60IPMNPanIN-1A3Male69Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B4Male65CholangiocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 2, 35Male72Duodenum adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 26Female74Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1A, 1B, 27Female66Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 28Male76Bile duct adenomaPanIN-1B9Female79Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A10Female76Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 211Male69Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 212Female72Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A13Male50Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-314Female67Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmPanIN-1B, 215Male62IPMNPanIN-1BaHighlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.16Female37Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1A17Female56Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A18Male85Metastatic neoplasmPanIN-1A, 219Male63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 220Female69Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 2aHighlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.21Male83Metastatic neoplasmPanIN-1A, 1B, 222Male61Serous cystadenomaPanIN-223Female71Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B24Female74Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 225Female76Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B26Female60Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1A27Male79Ductal adenocarcinoma, IPMNPanIN-1A28Female58Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmPanIN-1A29Male62Adenosquamous carcinomaPanIN-1B, 230Female51IPMNPanIN-1B31Female58IPMNPanIN-1A, 232Male61IPMNPanIN-1B33Female65Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-334Male50Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 235Female64Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 236Female52IPMNPanIN-1A, 337Female66Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A38Female66Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1B, 2, 339Female58IPMNPanIN-1BaHighlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.40Male63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-241Male55IPMNPanIN-1B42Female67Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmPanIN-1B43Female60Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 244Female69Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 2, 345Female66Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 246Female59Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2, 347Male76IPMNPanIN-2, 348Male75Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1B, 2, 349Female45Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 250Male65IPMNPanIN-1A, 1B, 251Female55Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B52Male85IPMNPanIN-1A, 1B53Male74Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2, 354Female52Serous cystadenomaPanIN-1A, 1B55Female62Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmPanIN-1B56Female75Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1B, 257Female56IPMNPanIN-1A, 1B, 258Female70Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B59Female78Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2, 360Female63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-361Female54Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-362Female64Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2, 363Male73Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B64Female73Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 265Male55Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmPanIN-1A, 1B66Male59Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B67Female61Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1A, 1B68Male68Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 269Female89Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B70Female86Serous cystadenomaPanIN-1A, 1B71Male73Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 2, 372Female58Mucinous cystadenomaPanIN-1AaHighlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.,bNo mutations identified in any gene tested.73Female60Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B74Male57Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2aHighlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.75Female63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 276Female63Ampullary adenomaPanIN-1A, 1B77Female71Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B78Female60Ductal adenocarcinoma, IPMNPanIN-379Female63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-380Female54Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 281Male58Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-2, 382Male63Chronic pancreatitisPanIN-1B83Male63Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 284Male73Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 2, 385Male72Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 386Female69Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-1A, 1B, 2, 387Male49Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-388Male75Ductal adenocarcinomaPanIN-289Female58IPMNPanIN-1A, 2a Highlighted PanINs were KRAS wild-type.b No mutations identified in any gene tested. Open table in a new tab Supplementary Table 2Frequency of Mutation in Each GeneKRAS codon 12 WT; GGTKRAS codon 13 WT; GGCKRAS codon 61 WT; CAAKRAS codon 146 WT; GCABRAF codon 600 WT; GTGGNAS codon 201 WT; CGTp16/CKDN2ANormal duct0%0%0%0%0%0%0%PanIN-1A92.0%(46/50)CGT 8GAT 16GTT 21TGT 12.0%(1/50)GAC 14.0%(2/50)CGA 1CTA 10%0%8.0%(4/50)CAT 2TGT 26.0%(3/50)Exon1 1Exon2 2PanIN-1B92.3% (48/52)CGT 9GAT 21GTT 17TGT 10%1.9%(1/52)CAC 10%1.9%(1/52)GAG 15.8%(3/52)CAT 1TGT 29.6%(5/52)Exon1 3Exon2 2Exon1, 2 1PanIN-293.3%(42/45)CGT 6GAT 20GTT 14TGT 20%2.2%(1/45)CGA 10%0%13.3%(6/45)CAT 4TGT 220.0%(9/45)Exon1 3Exon2 5Exon1, 2 1PanIN-395.4%(21/22)CGT 2GAT 12GTT 74.5%(1/22)AGC 19.1%(2/22)CAT 1CGA 10%4.5%(1/22)GAG 14.5%(1/22)CAT 136.4%(7/22)Exon1 3Exon2 3Exon1, 2 1WT, wild-type. Open table in a new tab Supplementary Table 3Concentrations of Mutant KRASKRAS mutationPanIN-1A (n = 50)PanIN-1B (n = 52)PanIN-2 (n = 45)PanIN-3 (n = 22)Pancreatic cancer (n = 12)Codon 127%10%21%28%37%GGT>CG10%18%22%38%81%T16%20%31%(G12R)24%23%31%24%30%34%25%30%30%31%35%32%46%Mean ± SD21.4% ± 9.7%26.7% ± 10.3%29.3% ± 6.5%33.0% ± 7.1%59.0% ± 33.1%Codon 128%6%20%24%25%GGT>G8%8%21%27%31%AT9%8%22%33%46%(G12D)10%12%24%34%55%12%15%24%36%14%15%25%39%16%15%26%40%18%15%26%41%18%16%28%44%22%16%28%46%25%16%29%50%27%19%31%54%29%19%31%31%20%32%41%25%33%42%30%36%30%39%30%40%32%42%33%44%36%Mean ± SD20.6% ± 11.1%19.8% ± 8.9%30.1% ± 7.1%39.0% ± 8.9%39.3% ± 13.7%Codon 12 GGT>GTT (G12V)6%15%21%29%26%7%16%22%31%29%7%16%23%33%37%11%17%24%38%41%11%18%26%39%11%18%27%42%13%18%30%46%13%19%32%17%22%33%18%24%35%18%24%35%20%26%38%20%33%42%20%36%21%38%23%41%23%45%24%25%25%30%Mean ± SD17.3% ± 6.8%25.1% ± 9.8%30.9% ± 7.4%36.9% ± 6.1%33.3% ± 6.9%Codon 12 GGT>TGT (G12C) Mean ± SD15%20%11%25%18.0% ± 9.9%59%Codon 1320% GGC>GAC (G13D)37% GGC>AGC (G13S)51% GGC>AGC (G13S)Codon 61 Mean ± SD29%CAA>CGA(Q61R)49%CAA>CTA (Q61L)39.0% ± 14.1%54%CAA>CAC (Q61H)29%CAA>CGA (Q61R)42%CAA>CGA (Q61R)58%CAA>CAT (Q61H)50.0% ± 11.3%89%CAA>CGA (Q61R)NOTE. The mean PanIN concentrations of mutant KRAS increased with increasing grade of PanINs in each type of mutation.SD, standard deviation. Open table in a new tab Supplementary Table 4Results of KRAS and GNAS Mutation Analysis of the Second Set of PanINsSexAge, yPanINPathologic diagnosisKRASGNAS1Female68PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12DNone detected2Female64PanIN-1Ductal adenocarcinomaG12DR201H3Male70PanIN-3Ductal adenocarcinomaG12DNone detected4Female66PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaNone detectedNone detected5Male76PanIN-1Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmNone detectedNone detected6Male57PanIN-2IPMNG12D, G12VNone detected7Female50PanIN-2Serous cystadenomaG12D, G12VR201H8Female61PanIN-2CholangiocarcinomaG12VNone detected9Female67PanIN-1Colloid adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected10Male74PanIN-3Ductal adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected11Female74PanIN-3IPMNG12RR201H12Female74PanIN-3IPMNG12RNone detected13Female57PanIN-1Ductal adenocarcinomaG12RR201H14Female75PanIN-1CholangiocarcinomaG12D, G12VR201H15Female75PanIN-2CholangiocarcinomaG12DR201H16Female75PanIN-3CholangiocarcinomaG12R, G12D, G12VNone detected17Female76PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12V, G12DNone detected18Male67PanIN-1Ampullary adenocarcinomaG12VNone detected19Male71PanIN-2Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmG12DNone detected20Female72PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected21Female57PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12VNone detected22Male67PanIN-1Ductal adenocarcinomaG12DR201H, R201C23Female49PanIN-1Ductal adenocarcinomaG12VNone detected24Female79PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12VNone detected25Female57PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12V, G12RNone detected26Male58PanIN-3IPMNG12DNone detected27Female58PanIN-2Ductal adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected28Female58PanIN-3Ductal adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected29Male56PanIN-2IPMNG12RNone detected30Female40PanIN-1Pancreatic endocrine neoplasmG12D, G12VNone detected31Female56PanIN-1Serous cystadenomaG12D, G12VNone detected32Male46PanIN-2Serous cystadenomaG12DNone detected33Female76PanIN-2Serous cystadenomaG12D, G12VNone detected34Male61PanIN-2GI stromal tumor (GIST) (duodenum)G12VNone detected35Male62PanIN-2IPMNG12DNone detected36Female79PanIN-1Ampullary adenocarcinomaG12RNone detected37Female79PanIN-2Ampullary adenocarcinomaG12RNone detectedNOTE. Combining this set with the first set of PanIN results, GNAS mutations were still more common in patients with a primary diagnosis other than pancreatic cancer (P = .02). Open table in a new tab Supplementary Table 5Primers and Annealing Temperatures Used for Polymerase Chain Reactions in This StudyGeneTargetExperimentTypeOligo sequence (5’–3’)Product sizeAnnealing temperatureKRASCodon 12/13PyrosequencingForwardAGGCCTGCTGAAAATGACTG119 bp52°CPyrosequencingReverseTTGTTGGATCATATTCGTCCACPyrosequencingSequencingGTGGTAGTTGGAGCTHRMForwardAGGCCTGCTGAAAATGACTG119 bp65°CHRMReverseTTGTTGGATCATATTCGTCCAC KRAS amplificationForwardAGGCCTGCTGAAAATGACTG119 bp60°CKRAS amplificationReverseTTGTTGGATCATATTCGTCCAC Codon 61PyrosequencingForwardCAGACTGTGTTTCTCCCTTCTCA131 bp62°CPyrosequencingReverseCTCATGTACTGGTCCCTCGTTGPyrosequencingSequencingATATTCTCGACACAGCAGCodon 146PyrosequencingForwardAGTTAAGGACTCTGAAGATG157 bp56°CPyrosequencingReverseAGTGTTACTTACCTGTCTTGPyrosequencingSequencingGAATTCCTTTTATTGAAACBRAFCodon 600PyrosequencingForwardATGCTTGCTCTGATAGGAA228 bp59°CPyrosequencingReverseGCATCTCAGGGCCAAAPyrosequencingSequencingTGATTTTGGTCTAGCTACGNASCodon 201PyrosequencingForwardCTGTTTCGGTTGGCTTTGGTG188 bp63°CPyrosequencingReverseAGGGACTGGGGTGAATGTCAAGPyrosequencingSequencingAGGACCTGCTTCGCTGp16/CDKN2AExon 1HRMForwardGAAGAAAGAGGAGGGGCTG340 bp65°CHRMReverseGCGCTACCTGATTCCAATTCExon 2HRMForwardACCCTGGCTCTGACCAT316 bp65°CHRMReverseGCGGGCATGGTTACTGCCTCTGNOTE. Primers used for the ligation assay and BEAMing are provided in Wu et al.4Jones S. et al.Science. 2008; 321: 1801-1806Crossref PubMed Scopus (3043) Google ScholarHRM, high-resolution melt curve assay. Open table in a new tab WT, wild-type. NOTE. The mean PanIN concentrations of mutant KRAS increased with increasing grade of PanINs in each type of mutation. SD, standard deviation. NOTE. Combining this set with the first set of PanIN results, GNAS mutations were still more common in patients with a primary diagnosis other than pancreatic cancer (P = .02). NOTE. Primers used for the ligation assay and BEAMing are provided in Wu et al.4Jones S. et al.Science. 2008; 321: 1801-1806Crossref PubMed Scopus (3043) Google Scholar HRM, high-resolution melt curve assay.