Mass spectrometric analysis of human plasma and urine revealed abundant nitrated derivatives of all principal unsaturated fatty acids. Nitrated palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids were detected in concert with their nitrohydroxy derivatives. Two nitroalkene derivatives of the most prevalent fatty acid, oleic acid, were synthesized (9- and 10-nitro-9-cis-octadecenoic acid; OA-NO2), structurally characterized and determined to be identical to OA-NO2 found in plasma, red cells, and urine of healthy humans. These regioisomers of OA-NO2 were quantified in clinical samples using 13C isotope dilution. Plasma free and esterified OA-NO2 concentrations were 619 ± 52 and 302 ± 369 nm, respectively, and packed red blood cell free and esterified OA-NO2 was 59 ± 11 and 155 ± 65 nm. The OA-NO2 concentration of blood is ∼50% greater than that of nitrated linoleic acid, with the combined free and esterified blood levels of these two fatty acid derivatives exceeding 1 μm. OA-NO2 is a potent ligand for peroxisome proliferator activated receptors at physiological concentrations. CV-1 cells co-transfected with the luciferase gene under peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) response element regulation, in concert with PPARγ, PPARα, or PPARδ expression plasmids, showed dose-dependent activation of all PPARs by OA-NO2. PPARγ showed the greatest response, with significant activation at 100 nm, while PPARα and PPARδ were activated at ∼300 nm OA-NO2. OA-NO2 also induced PPAR γ-dependent adipogenesis and deoxyglucose uptake in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes at a potency exceeding nitrolinoleic acid and rivaling synthetic thiazo-lidinediones. These data reveal that nitrated fatty acids comprise a class of nitric oxide-derived, receptor-dependent, cell signaling mediators that act within physiological concentration ranges. Mass spectrometric analysis of human plasma and urine revealed abundant nitrated derivatives of all principal unsaturated fatty acids. Nitrated palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids were detected in concert with their nitrohydroxy derivatives. Two nitroalkene derivatives of the most prevalent fatty acid, oleic acid, were synthesized (9- and 10-nitro-9-cis-octadecenoic acid; OA-NO2), structurally characterized and determined to be identical to OA-NO2 found in plasma, red cells, and urine of healthy humans. These regioisomers of OA-NO2 were quantified in clinical samples using 13C isotope dilution. Plasma free and esterified OA-NO2 concentrations were 619 ± 52 and 302 ± 369 nm, respectively, and packed red blood cell free and esterified OA-NO2 was 59 ± 11 and 155 ± 65 nm. The OA-NO2 concentration of blood is ∼50% greater than that of nitrated linoleic acid, with the combined free and esterified blood levels of these two fatty acid derivatives exceeding 1 μm. OA-NO2 is a potent ligand for peroxisome proliferator activated receptors at physiological concentrations. CV-1 cells co-transfected with the luciferase gene under peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) response element regulation, in concert with PPARγ, PPARα, or PPARδ expression plasmids, showed dose-dependent activation of all PPARs by OA-NO2. PPARγ showed the greatest response, with significant activation at 100 nm, while PPARα and PPARδ were activated at ∼300 nm OA-NO2. OA-NO2 also induced PPAR γ-dependent adipogenesis and deoxyglucose uptake in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes at a potency exceeding nitrolinoleic acid and rivaling synthetic thiazo-lidinediones. These data reveal that nitrated fatty acids comprise a class of nitric oxide-derived, receptor-dependent, cell signaling mediators that act within physiological concentration ranges. The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids converts lipids, otherwise serving as cellular metabolic precursors and structural components, into potent signaling molecules including prostaglandins, leukotrienes, isoprostanes, and hydroxy- and hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoates. These enzymatic and auto-catalytic oxidation reactions yield products that orchestrate immune responses, neurotransmission, and the regulation of cell growth. For example, prostaglandins are cyclooxygenase-derived lipid mediators that induce receptor-dependent regulation of inflammatory responses, vascular function, initiation of parturition, cell survival, and angiogenesis (1Smith W.L. Am. J. Physiol. 1992; 263: F181-F191PubMed Google Scholar). In contrast, the various isoprostane products of arachidonic acid auto-oxidation exert vasoconstrictive and pro-inflammatory signaling actions via receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms (2Montuschi P. Barnes P.J. Roberts L.J. FASEB J. 2004; 18: 1791-1800Crossref PubMed Scopus (612) Google Scholar). A common element of these diverse lipid signaling reactions is that nitric oxide (.NO) 6The abbreviations used are: NOnitric oxideLNO2nitrated linoleic acidPPARperoxisome proliferator-activated receptorOA-NO2nitrated oleic acidONOO-peroxynitriteMPOmyeloperoxidaseHPLC ESI MS/MShigh performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometryMRMmultiple reaction monitoringCIDcollision-induced dissociationPPREPPAR response elementsDTPAdiethylenetriaminepentaacetateDMEMDulbecco's modified Eagle's mediumFBSfetal bovine serum. and other oxides of nitrogen significantly impact lipid mediator formation and bioactivities. nitric oxide nitrated linoleic acid peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor nitrated oleic acid peroxynitrite myeloperoxidase high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry multiple reaction monitoring collision-induced dissociation PPAR response elements diethylenetriaminepentaacetate Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium fetal bovine serum. The ability of .NO and .NO-derived species to oxidize, nitrosate, and nitrate biomolecules serves as the molecular basis for how .NO influences the synthesis and reactions of bioactive lipids (3Rubbo H. Radi R. Trujillo M. Telleri R. Kalyanaraman B. Barnes S. Kirk M. Freeman B.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 26066-26075Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 4Schopfer F.J. Baker P.R. Freeman B.A. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2003; 28: 646-654Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (317) Google Scholar, 5Marshall H.E. Merchant K. Stamler J.S. FASEB J. 2000; 14: 1889-1900Crossref PubMed Scopus (375) Google Scholar). Interactions between .NO and lipid oxidation pathways are multifaceted and inter-dependent. For example, .NO regulates both the catalytic activity and gene expression of prostaglandin H synthase (6Vidwans A.S. Uliasz T.F. Hewett J.A. Hewett S.J. Biochemistry. 2001; 40: 11533-11542Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). Conversely, leukotriene products of lipoxygenases induce nitric-oxide synthase-2 expression and increase inflammatory .NO production (7Larfars G. Lantoine F. Devynck M.A. Palmblad J. Gyllenhammar H. Blood. 1999; 93: 1399-1405Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The free radical reactivity of .NO lends an ability to inhibit the autocatalytic chain propagation reactions of lipid peroxyl radicals during membrane and lipoprotein oxidation (8Rubbo H. Radi R. Anselmi D. Kirk M. Barnes S. Butler J. Eiserich J.P. Freeman B.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 10812-10818Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (165) Google Scholar). Of relevance, reactions between .NO-derived species, unsaturated fatty acids, and lipid oxidation intermediates yield a spectrum of fatty acid oxidation and nitration products (3Rubbo H. Radi R. Trujillo M. Telleri R. Kalyanaraman B. Barnes S. Kirk M. Freeman B.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 26066-26075Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Recently, the nitroalkene derivative of linoleic acid (LNO2) was detected in human blood at concentrations sufficient to induce biological responses (∼500 nm; Refs. 9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar, 10Coles B. Bloodsworth A. Eiserich J.P. Coffey M.J. McLoughlin R.M. Giddings J.C. Lewis M.J. Haslam R.J. Freeman B.A. O'Donnell V.B. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 5832-5840Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar, 11Coles B. Bloodsworth A. Clark S.R. Lewis M.J. Cross A.R. Freeman B.A. O'Donnell V.B. Circ. Res. 2002; 91: 375-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar, 12Lim D.G. Sweeney S. Bloodsworth A. White C.R. Chumley P.H. Krishna N.R. Schopfer F. O'Donnell V.B. Eiserich J.P. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 15941-15946Crossref PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar). Compared with other .NO-derived species such as nitrite (NO2-), nitrosothiols (RSNO), and heme-nitrosyl complexes, LNO2 alone represents the single most abundant pool of bioactive oxides of nitrogen in the healthy human vasculature (9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar, 13Gladwin M.T. Shelhamer J.H. Schechter A.N. Pease-Fye M.E. Waclawiw M.A. Panza J.A. Ognibene F.P. Cannon III, R.O. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 11482-11487Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar, 14Rassaf T. Bryan N.S. Kelm M. Feelisch M. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002; 33: 1590-1596Crossref PubMed Scopus (167) Google Scholar, 15Rassaf T. Bryan N.S. Maloney R.E. Specian V. Kelm M. Kalyanaraman B. Rodriguez J. Feelisch M. Nat. Med. 2003; 9: 481-482Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar, 16Cosby K. Partovi K.S. Crawford J.H. Patel R.P. Reiter C.D. Martyr S. Yang B.K. Waclawiw M.A. Zalos G. Xu X. Huang K.T. Shields H. Kim-Shapiro D.B. Schechter A.N. Cannon III, R.O. Gladwin M.T. Nat. Med. 2003; 9: 1498-1505Crossref PubMed Scopus (1446) Google Scholar). In vitro studies have shown that LNO2 mediates cGMP-dependent vascular relaxation, cGMP-independent inhibition of neutrophil degranulation and superoxide formation, and inhibition of platelet activation (10Coles B. Bloodsworth A. Eiserich J.P. Coffey M.J. McLoughlin R.M. Giddings J.C. Lewis M.J. Haslam R.J. Freeman B.A. O'Donnell V.B. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 5832-5840Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar, 11Coles B. Bloodsworth A. Clark S.R. Lewis M.J. Cross A.R. Freeman B.A. O'Donnell V.B. Circ. Res. 2002; 91: 375-381Crossref PubMed Scopus (146) Google Scholar, 12Lim D.G. Sweeney S. Bloodsworth A. White C.R. Chumley P.H. Krishna N.R. Schopfer F. O'Donnell V.B. Eiserich J.P. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 15941-15946Crossref PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar). Recently, LNO2 has been shown to exert cell signaling actions via ligation and activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) (17Schopfer F.J. Lin Y. Baker P.R. Cui T. Garcia-Barrio M. Zhang J. Chen K. Chen Y.E. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005; 102: 2340-2345Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar), a class of nuclear hormone receptors that modulates the expression of metabolic, cellular differentiation, and inflammatory-related genes (18Lee C.H. Evans R.M. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2002; 13: 331-335Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar, 19Marx N. Duez H. Fruchart J.C. Staels B. Circ. Res. 2004; 94: 1168-1178Crossref PubMed Scopus (464) Google Scholar). The identification of the cell signaling actions of LNO2, which include (a) robust endogenous PPARγ ligand activity that acts within physiological concentrations (17Schopfer F.J. Lin Y. Baker P.R. Cui T. Garcia-Barrio M. Zhang J. Chen K. Chen Y.E. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005; 102: 2340-2345Crossref PubMed Scopus (370) Google Scholar), (b) an ability to decay in aqueous conditions to release .NO (20Schopfer F.J. Baker P.R. Giles G. Chumley P. Batthyany C. Crawford J. Patel R.P. Hogg N. Branchaud B.P. Lancaster Jr., J.R. Freeman B.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 19289-19297Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar), and (c) reactivity as an electrophile, motivated a search for other nitrated fatty acids that might serve related signaling actions. Herein, we report that nitroalkene derivatives of all principal unsaturated fatty acids are present in human blood and urine. Of the fatty acid content in red cells, linoleic acid and oleic acid comprise ∼8 and ∼18% of total, respectively (21Dodge J.T. Phillips G.B. J. Lipid Res. 1967; 8: 667-675Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). Due to its prevalence and structural simplicity, oleic acid was evaluated as a potential candidate for nitration. The synthesis, structural characterization, and cell signaling activities of 9- and 10-nitro-9-cis-octadecaenoic acids are described (nitrated oleic acid, OA-NO2; Fig. 1). OA-NO2 regioisomers were measured in human blood and urine at levels exceeding those of LNO2. Furthermore, OA-NO2 activates PPARγ with a greater potency than LNO2. These data reveal that nitrated unsaturated fatty acids represent a class of lipid-derived, receptor-dependent signaling mediators. Materials—9-Octadecenoic acid (oleic acid) was purchased from Nu-Check Prep (Elysian, MN). [13C18]Oleic acid (>98% isotopic purity) was purchased from Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Inc. (Andover, MA). OA-NO2 and [13C18]OA-NO2 were synthesized as described below. Phenylselenium bromide, HgCl2, NaNO2, anhydrous tetrahy-drofuran (THF), CH3CN, CDCl3, insulin, dexamethasone, and 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine were obtained from Sigma. Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) was prepared as described (22Koppenol W.H. Kissner R. Beckman J.S. Methods Enzymol. 1996; 269: 296-302Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Silica gel G and HF thin layer chromatography plates (250 and 2000 μm) were from Analtech (New-ark, DE). Methanolic BF3, horseradish peroxidase-linked goat anti-rabbit IgG, and Coomasie Blue were from Pierce. Myeloperoxidase (MPO) derived from human polymorphonuclear leukocytes was obtained from Calbiochem. Synthetic solvents were of HPLC grade or better from Fisher Scientific. Solvents used for extractions and mass spectrometric analyses were from Burdick and Jackson (Muskegon, MI). Anti-PPARγ and anti-β-actin antibodies were from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA); anti-aP2 antibody was from Chemicon International Inc. (Temecula, CA). Synthesis of OA-NO2—Oleic acid and [13C18]oleic acid were nitrated as described (9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar, 12Lim D.G. Sweeney S. Bloodsworth A. White C.R. Chumley P.H. Krishna N.R. Schopfer F. O'Donnell V.B. Eiserich J.P. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 99: 15941-15946Crossref PubMed Scopus (106) Google Scholar), with modifications. Oleic acid, HgCl2, phenylselenium bromide, and NaNO2 (1:1.3:1:1, mol/mol) were combined in THF/acetonitrile (1:1, v/v) with a final concentration of 0.15 m oleic acid. The reaction mixture was stirred (4 h, 25 °C), followed by centrifugation to sediment the precipitate. The supernatant was recovered, the solvent evaporated in vacuo, the product mixture redissolved in THF (original volume), and the temperature reduced to 0 °C. A 10-fold molar excess of H2O2 was slowly added with stirring to the mixture, which was allowed to react in an ice bath for 20 min followed by a gradual warming to room temp (45 min). The product mixture was extracted with hexane, the organic phase collected, the solvent removed in vacuo, and lipid products solvated in CH3OH. OA-NO2 was isolated by preparative TLC using silica gel HF plates developed twice in a solvent system consisting of hexane/ether/acetic acid (70:30:1, v/v). The region of silica containing OA-NO2 was scraped and extracted (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.L. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 1959; 37: 911-917Crossref PubMed Scopus (43132) Google Scholar). Based on this synthetic rationale, two regioisomers are generated: 9- and 10-nitro-9-cis-octadecenoic acids (generically termed OA-NO2). Preparative TLC does not adequately resolve the two isomers. [13C18]OA-NO2 was synthesized using [13C18]oleic acid as a reactant. All nitrated fatty acid stock solutions were diluted in MeOH, aliquoted, and stored under argon gas at -80 °C. Under these conditions, OA-NO2 isomers remain stable for >3 months. The nitroalkene positional isomers are described as cis throughout this article based on the configuration of the carbon skeleton, which correlates the cis alkene stereochemistry in the nitroalkenes with the corresponding cis alkene stereochemistry in naturally occurring oleic acid. The IUPAC nomenclature of the nitroalkenes has the opposite stereochemical terminology, because it focuses on the relationship of the higher priority nitro group to the carbon substituents on the alkene. For example, the 9-nitro isomer has the carbon chains cis to each other on the nitroalkene, but the official IUPAC nomenclature designates this compound as E (or trans) because the nitro group on C-9 and the carbon chain on C-10 have the E (entgegen) or trans relationship to each other. Quantitation of Synthetic OA-NO2—The concentrations of synthetic OA-NO2 stock solutions were determined using chemiluminescent nitrogen analysis (Antek Instruments, Houston, TX), a quantitative measure of nitrogen content in synthetic and biological samples (24Deng Y. Wu J.T. Zhang H. Olah T.V. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2004; 18: 1681-1685Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar, 25Pai T.G. Payne W.J. LeGall J. Anal. Biochem. 1987; 166: 150-157Crossref PubMed Scopus (27) Google Scholar). Briefly, purified synthetic nitroalkene preparations were subjected to complete pyrolysis (>1000 °C). The nitrogen-containing OA-NO2 reacts with O2 to ultimately yield .NO at a ratio of one mole .NO for every mole of nitrogen present in OA-NO2. The generated .NO reacts with O3 to yield nitrogen dioxide (.NO2,O2, and hv, the latter of which is sensitively detected with a photomultiplier). Concentrations were calculated using caffeine as standard. Stability of OA-NO2 and LNO2—The relative stabilities of OA-NO2 and LNO2 in MeOH and phosphate buffer (100 mm KiPO4 containing 100 μm DTPA, pH 7.4) were determined by electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (ESI MS/MS) using the quantitative methodology detailed below. OA-NO2 and LNO2 (3 μm each) were incubated at 37 °C in either MeOH or phosphate buffer, and aliquots were taken over time. The aliquots were extracted as described (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.L. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 1959; 37: 911-917Crossref PubMed Scopus (43132) Google Scholar), with 1 μm [13C18]LNO2 added during the monophase stage of the extraction procedure as an internal standard, and analyzed for non-degraded OA-NO2 and LNO2. In aqueous buffer, nitrated lipids degrade more rapidly than in organic solvents (20Schopfer F.J. Baker P.R. Giles G. Chumley P. Batthyany C. Crawford J. Patel R.P. Hogg N. Branchaud B.P. Lancaster Jr., J.R. Freeman B.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 19289-19297Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (156) Google Scholar); thus, their stability in phosphate buffer was measured over 2 h. The stability of nitrated fatty acids solvated in MeOH at 37 °C was measured over the course of 1 month. OA-NO2 Spectrophotometric Characterization—OA-NO2 stock solution concentrations derived from chemiluminescent nitrogen analysis were utilized to determine dilution concentrations for subsequent spectral analysis. An absorbance spectrum of OA-NO2 from 200-450 nm was generated using 23 μm OA-NO2 in phosphate buffer (100 mm, pH 7.4) containing 100 μm DTPA. The extinction coefficients (ϵ) for OA-NO2 and the isotopic derivative [13C18]OA-NO2 were measured (λ270) using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan). Absorbance values for increasing concentrations of OA-NO2 and [13C18]OA-NO2 were plotted against concentration to calculate ϵ. NMR Spectrometric Analysis of OA-NO2—1H and 13C NMR spectra were acquired using a Varian INOVA 300 and a 500 MHz NMR and recorded in CDCl3. Chemical shifts are in δ units (ppm) and referenced to residual proton (7.26 ppm) or carbon (77.28 ppm) signals in deuterated chloroform. Coupling constants (J) are reported in Hertz (Hz). Structural Characterization of OA-NO2 by ESI MS/MS—Qualitative analysis of OA-NO2 by ESI MS/MS was performed using a hybrid triple quadrupole-linear ion trap mass spectrometer (4000 Q trap, Applied Biosystems/MDS Sciex). To characterize synthetic and endogenous OA-NO2, a reverse-phase HPLC methodology was developed using a 150 × 2 mm C18 Phenomenex Luna column (3 μm particle size). Lipids were separated and eluted from the column using a gradient solvent system consisting of A (H2O containing 0.1% NH4OH) and B (CNCH3 containing 0.1% NH4OH) under the following conditions: 20-65% B (10 min); 65-95% B (1 min; hold for 3 min) and 95-20% B (1 min; hold for 3 min). OA-NO2 was detected using a multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) scan mode by reporting molecules that undergo a m/z 326/279 mass transition consistent with the loss of the nitro group ([M - (HNO2)]-). Concurrent with MRM determination, enhanced product ion analysis (EPI) was performed to generate characteristic and identifying fragmentation patterns of eluting species with a precursor mass of m/z 326. Zero grade air was used as source gas, and nitrogen was used in the collision chamber. Red Blood Cell Isolation and Lipid Extraction—Peripheral blood from fasting, apparently healthy human volunteers was collected by venipuncture into heparinized tubes (UAB Institutional Review Board-approved protocol no. X040311001). Blood was centrifuged (1200 × g; 10 min), the buffy coat was removed, and erythrocytes were isolated. Lipid extracts were prepared from red cells and plasma and directly analyzed by mass spectrometry (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.L. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 1959; 37: 911-917Crossref PubMed Scopus (43132) Google Scholar). Care was taken to avoid acidification during extraction to prevent artifactual lipid nitration due to the presence of endogenous nitrite (9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar). In experiments using urine as the biological specimen (UAB Institutional Review Board-approved protocol no. X040311003), extraction conditions were identical. Detection and Quantitation of OA-NO2 in Human Blood and Urine—Quantitation of OA-NO2 in biological samples was performed as described (9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar), with modifications. Matched blood and urine samples were obtained after >8 h fasting; urine was collected from the first void of the day. During the monophase stage of the lipid extraction (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.L. Can. J. Biochem. Physiol. 1959; 37: 911-917Crossref PubMed Scopus (43132) Google Scholar), [13C18]OA-NO2 was added as internal standard to correct for any losses. Nitrated fatty acids were then analyzed by HPLC ESI MS/MS in the negative ion mode. Lipids were eluted from the HPLC column using an isocratic solvent system consisting of CH3CN:H2O:NH4OH (85:15:0.1, v/v) so that the two OA-NO2 regioisomers co-elute. During quantitative analyses, two MRM transitions were monitored: m/z 326/279 (OA-NO2) and m/z 344/297 ([13C18]OA-NO2), transitions consistent with the loss of the nitro group from the respective precursor ions. The areas under each peak were integrated, the ratios of analyte to internal standard areas were determined, and OA-NO2 was quantitated using Analyst 1.4 quantitation software (Applied Biosystems/MDS Sciex). Data are expressed as mean ± S.D. (n = 10; 5 female and 5 male). To address whether artifactual synthesis of OA-NO2 occurred during sample preparation and extraction, control studies were performed as described (9Baker P.R. Schopfer F.J. Sweeney S. Freeman B.A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 11577-11582Crossref PubMed Scopus (181) Google Scholar). Briefly, [13C18]oleic acid was added as a reporter molecule prior to red cell and plasma lipid purification and analysis, which permitted the MS detection of possible 13C-labeled OA-NO2 formation. Also, 200 μm NO2- was included in initial lipid extractions to determine whether separations or analysis-induced nitration reactions might be supported by physiological NO2- levels that can exceed 200 nm (14Rassaf T. Bryan N.S. Kelm M. Feelisch M. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002; 33: 1590-1596Crossref PubMed Scopus (167) Google Scholar, 15Rassaf T. Bryan N.S. Maloney R.E. Specian V. Kelm M. Kalyanaraman B. Rodriguez J. Feelisch M. Nat. Med. 2003; 9: 481-482Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar). In no case did we detect artifactual nitration of oleic acid due to sample processing and analysis. Qualitative Analysis of Nitro and Nitrohydroxy Adducts of Fatty Acids—Using HPLC ESI MS/MS in the negative ion mode, blood and urine samples were evaluated for the presence of nitroalkene derivatives other than LNO2. HPLC separations using the qualitative gradient elution methodology were performed similarly to those used to characterize OA-NO2, with some modifications. Alternative MRM transitions were used to detect other potential nitroalkene derivatives. Theoretical MRM transitions were determined for the CID-induced loss of the nitro group from nitrated palmitoleic (16:1-NO2), linolenic (18:3-NO2), arachidonic (20:4-NO2), and eicosapentaenoic (20:5-NO2) acids. MRM transitions for nitrohydroxy adducts were also monitored: 16:1(OH)-NO2; 18:1(OH)-NO2; 18:2(OH)-NO2; 18:3(OH)-NO2, 20:4(OH)-NO2, and 20:5(OH)-NO2. In Vitro Formation of OA-NO2—Three different conditions were examined for an ability to induce nitration of oleic acid: acidic nitration, treatment with peroxynitrite, and treatment with MPO in the presence of H2O2 and nitrite. Briefly, for acidic nitration, oleic acid (1 mm) and sodium nitrite (100 μm) were prepared in phosphate buffer (50 mm, pH 7.2) in the presence of 2% sodium cholate (26O'Donnell V.B. Eiserich J.P. Chumley P.H. Jablonsky M.J. Krishna N.R. Kirk M. Barnes S. Darley-Usmar V.M. Freeman B.A. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1999; 12: 83-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar). The pH was adjusted to 3.0, and the reaction mixture was incubated with stirring (40 min; 25 °C). The reaction was stopped by solvent extraction, and OA-NO2 levels were measured by HPLC ESI MS/MS. For peroxynitrite-induced nitration, oleic acid (1 mm) was suspended in phosphate buffer (100 mm, pH 7.2), and ONOO- was infused via syringe pump into a stirred chamber (100 μm/min; 15 min) (26O'Donnell V.B. Eiserich J.P. Chumley P.H. Jablonsky M.J. Krishna N.R. Kirk M. Barnes S. Darley-Usmar V.M. Freeman B.A. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 1999; 12: 83-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar). Decayed ONOO- (pH 7.4, 10 min) was added as a control. Products were extracted and analyzed for OA-NO2. For MPO-induced nitration, oleic acid (1 mm) was incubated in phosphate buffer (100 mm; pH 7.2) in the presence of MPO (50 nm), sodium nitrite (100 μm), and hydrogen peroxide (100 μm) as described (27Eiserich J.P. Baldus S. Brennan M.L. Ma W. Zhang C. Tousson A. Castro L. Lusis A.J. Nauseef W.M. White C.R. Freeman B.A. Science. 2002; 296: 2391-2394Crossref PubMed Scopus (603) Google Scholar). The reaction proceeded for 90 min with additional aliquots of hydrogen peroxide added at 30-min intervals. The reaction was stopped by lipid extraction, and OA-NO2 was measured by HPLC ESI MS/MS. Significance of difference between treated and control groups was determined using a one-tailed, paired Student's t test. PPAR Transient Transfection Assay—CV-1 cells from the ATCC (Manassas, VA) were grown to ∼85% confluence in DMEM/F-12 supplemented with 10% FBS and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. Twelve hours before transfection, the medium was removed and replaced with anti-biotic-free medium. Cells were transiently co-transfected with a plasmid containing the luciferase gene under the control of three tandem PPAR response elements (PPRE) (PPRE × 3 TK-luciferase and PPARγ, PPARα, or PPARδ expression plasmids, respectively (provided by Ron Evans, Salk Institute). In all cases, a green fluorescence protein (GFP) expression plasmid was co-transfected as the control for transfection efficiency. Twenty-four hours after transfection, cells were returned to Opti-MEM (Invitrogen) for 24 h and then treated as indicated for another 24 h. Reporter luciferase assay kits from Promega (Madison, WI) were used to measure the luciferase activity according to the manufacturer's instructions with a luminometer (Victor II, PerkinElmer Life Sciences). Luciferase activity was normalized by GFP units. Each condition was performed in triplicate for each experiment (n ≥ 3). 3T3-L1 Differentiation and Oil Red O Staining—3T3-L1 preadipocytes were propagated and maintained in DMEM containing 10% FBS. To induce differentiation, 2-day post-confluent preadipocytes (designated day 0) were cultured in DMEM containing 10% FBS plus 1 and 3 μm OA-NO2 for 14 days. The medium was changed every 2 days. Rosiglitazone (3 μm) and oleic acid (3 μm) were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. Differentiated adipocytes were stained with oil red O as described previously (28Zhang J. Fu M. Cui T. Xiong C. Xu K. Zhong W. Xiao Y. Floyd D. Liang J. Li E. Song Q. Chen Y.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2004; 101: 10703-10708Crossref PubMed Scopus (218) Google Scholar). [3H]2-Deoxy-d-Glucose Uptake Assay in Differentiated 3T3-L1 Adipocytes—[3H]2-Deoxy-d-glucose uptake was analyzed as described previously (29Mukherjee R. Hoener P.A. Jow L. Bilakovics J. Klausing K. Mais D.E. Faulkner A. Croston G.E. Paterniti Jr., J.R. Mol. Endocrinol. 2000; 14: 1425-1433Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). 3T3-L1 preadipocytes were grown in 24-well ti