Overexpression of membrane proteins is often essential for structural and functional studies, but yields are frequently too low. An understanding of the physiological response to overexpression is needed to improve such yields. Therefore, we analyzed the consequences of overexpression of three different membrane proteins (YidC, YedZ, and LepI) fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) in the bacterium Escherichia coli and compared this with overexpression of a soluble protein, GST-GFP. Proteomes of total lysates, purified aggregates, and cytoplasmic membranes were analyzed by one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry complemented with flow cytometry, microscopy, Western blotting, and pulse labeling experiments. Composition and accumulation levels of protein complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were analyzed with improved two-dimensional blue native PAGE. Overexpression of the three membrane proteins, but not soluble GST-GFP, resulted in accumulation of cytoplasmic aggregates containing the overexpressed proteins, chaperones (DnaK/J and GroEL/S), and soluble proteases (HslUV and ClpXP) as well as many precursors of periplasmic and outer membrane proteins. This was consistent with lowered accumulation levels of secreted proteins in the three membrane protein overexpressors and is likely to be a direct consequence of saturation of the cytoplasmic membrane protein translocation machinery. Importantly accumulation levels of respiratory chain complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were strongly reduced. Induction of the acetate-phosphotransacetylase pathway for ATP production and a down-regulated tricarboxylic acid cycle indicated the activation of the Arc two-component system, which mediates adaptive responses to changing respiratory states. This study provides a basis for designing rational strategies to improve yields of membrane protein overexpression in E. coli. Overexpression of membrane proteins is often essential for structural and functional studies, but yields are frequently too low. An understanding of the physiological response to overexpression is needed to improve such yields. Therefore, we analyzed the consequences of overexpression of three different membrane proteins (YidC, YedZ, and LepI) fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) in the bacterium Escherichia coli and compared this with overexpression of a soluble protein, GST-GFP. Proteomes of total lysates, purified aggregates, and cytoplasmic membranes were analyzed by one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry complemented with flow cytometry, microscopy, Western blotting, and pulse labeling experiments. Composition and accumulation levels of protein complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were analyzed with improved two-dimensional blue native PAGE. Overexpression of the three membrane proteins, but not soluble GST-GFP, resulted in accumulation of cytoplasmic aggregates containing the overexpressed proteins, chaperones (DnaK/J and GroEL/S), and soluble proteases (HslUV and ClpXP) as well as many precursors of periplasmic and outer membrane proteins. This was consistent with lowered accumulation levels of secreted proteins in the three membrane protein overexpressors and is likely to be a direct consequence of saturation of the cytoplasmic membrane protein translocation machinery. Importantly accumulation levels of respiratory chain complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were strongly reduced. Induction of the acetate-phosphotransacetylase pathway for ATP production and a down-regulated tricarboxylic acid cycle indicated the activation of the Arc two-component system, which mediates adaptive responses to changing respiratory states. This study provides a basis for designing rational strategies to improve yields of membrane protein overexpression in E. coli. In both pro- and eukaryotes 20–30% of all genes encode α-helical transmembrane domain (TMD) 1The abbreviations used are: TMD, transmembrane domain; BCA, bicinchoninic acid; LepI, inverted leader peptidase; IPTG, isopropyl β-d-thiogalactopyranoside; 1D, one-dimensional; 2D, two-dimensional; BN, blue native; PMF, peptide mass fingerprinting; SRP, signal recognition particle; GFP, green fluorescent protein; a.u., arbitrary units; TEA, triethanolamine; pta, phosphotransacetylase; bis-Tris, 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol; Tricine, N-[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine; MOWSE, molecular weight search; E2, dihydrolipoyl acetyltransferase; E3, dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase; Q, ubiquinone. proteins, which act in various and often essential capacities (1Wallin E. von Heijne G. Genome-wide analysis of integral membrane proteins from eubacterial, archaean, and eukaryotic organisms.Protein Sci. 1998; 7: 1029-1038Crossref PubMed Scopus (1245) Google Scholar, 2Krogh A. Larsson B. von Heijne G. Sonnhammer E. Predicting transmembrane protein topology with a hidden Markov model. Application to complete genomes.J. Mol. Biol. 2001; 305: 567-580Crossref PubMed Scopus (9084) Google Scholar). Notably these TMD proteins (hereafter referred to as membrane proteins) play key roles in disease, and they constitute more than half of all known drug targets (e.g. Ref. 3Klabunde T. Hessler G. Drug design strategies for targeting G-protein-coupled receptors.Chembiochem. 2002; 3: 928-944Crossref PubMed Scopus (512) Google Scholar). The natural abundance of membrane proteins is in general too low to conveniently isolate sufficient material for functional and structural studies (4Wagner S. Bader M.L. Drew D. de Gier J.W. Rationalizing membrane protein overexpression.Trends Biotechnol. 2006; 24: 364-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar, 5Grisshammer R. Understanding recombinant expression of membrane proteins.Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2006; 17: 337-340Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar). Therefore, membrane proteins are often obtained through overexpression. The bacterium Escherichia coli is the most widely used vehicle for this purpose with overexpressed proteins accumulating in the cytoplasmic membrane (also named inner membrane) or in cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (4Wagner S. Bader M.L. Drew D. de Gier J.W. Rationalizing membrane protein overexpression.Trends Biotechnol. 2006; 24: 364-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar). Although membrane proteins can often more easily be expressed in inclusion bodies, their refolding into functional proteins is challenging and often not successful (6Drew D. Fröderberg L. Baars L. de Gier J.W. Assembly and overexpression of membrane proteins in Escherichia coli.Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2003; 1610: 3-10Crossref PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar). Overexpression of membrane proteins through accumulation in a membrane system avoids this refolding problem but is usually toxic to the organism, thereby severely reducing yields (4Wagner S. Bader M.L. Drew D. de Gier J.W. Rationalizing membrane protein overexpression.Trends Biotechnol. 2006; 24: 364-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar). The reasons for this toxicity are not clear; therefore, a better understanding of the physiological response to overexpression is needed to improve such yields through rational design (e.g. through engineering of strains or modifying target proteins). Because optimal protein production conditions cannot be predicted, yield maximization is currently mostly done by “trial and error.” However, green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based methodology developed for E. coli now facilitates rapid screening for overexpression in the cytoplasmic membrane and can accelerate the trial and error process (7Drew D. Slotboom D.J. Friso G. Reda T. Genevaux P. Rapp M. Meindl-Beinker N.M. Lambert W. Lerch M. Daley D.O. Van Wijk K.J. Hirst J. Kunji E. De Gier J.W. A scalable, GFP-based pipeline for membrane protein overexpression screening and purification.Protein Sci. 2005; 14: 2011-2017Crossref PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar, 8Drew D. Lerch M. Kunji E. Slotboom D.J. de Gier J.W. Optimization of membrane protein overexpression and purification using GFP fusions.Nat. Methods. 2006; 3: 303-313Crossref PubMed Scopus (264) Google Scholar). Improved prediction of protein overexpression success would be very beneficial but requires an understanding of the physiological response of the cell to overexpression. It is generally assumed that the overexpressed membrane protein affects integrity of the membrane and thus cell viability, leading to e.g. reduced growth and hampered division (4Wagner S. Bader M.L. Drew D. de Gier J.W. Rationalizing membrane protein overexpression.Trends Biotechnol. 2006; 24: 364-371Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (211) Google Scholar). In addition, overexpression of membrane proteins may lead to saturation of the protein sorting and translocation machineries, possibly preventing biogenesis of endogenous proteins. Our knowledge of E. coli membrane protein biogenesis is growing rapidly but is far from complete (9Luirink J. von Heijne G. Houben E. de Gier J.W. Biogenesis of inner membrane proteins in Escherichia coli.Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 329-355Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). The signal recognition particle pathway (consisting of the signal recognition particle (SRP) and its receptor FtsY) guides a ribosome membrane protein nascent chain complex to the cytoplasmic membrane Sec translocon (10Luirink J. Sinning I. SRP-mediated protein targeting: structure and function revisited.Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2004; 1694: 17-35PubMed Google Scholar). The ribosome membrane protein nascent chain complex subsequently docks at the Sec translocon. The core of the Sec translocon consists of the integral membrane proteins SecY and SecE, which form a protein-conducting channel (11Osborne A.R. Rapoport T.A. van den Berg B. Protein translocation by the Sec61/SecY channel.Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2005; 21: 529-550Crossref PubMed Scopus (298) Google Scholar). SecA is a peripheral subunit of the Sec translocon and is involved in translocation of sizable periplasmic loops of membrane proteins across the membrane, and it is also required for the translocation of secretory proteins (12Andersson H. von Heijne G. Sec dependent and sec independent assembly of E. coli inner membrane proteins: the topological rules depend on chain length.EMBO J. 1993; 12: 683-691Crossref PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar). TMDs of membrane proteins get trapped in the Sec translocon and move subsequently laterally out from the Sec translocon into the lipid bilayer (9Luirink J. von Heijne G. Houben E. de Gier J.W. Biogenesis of inner membrane proteins in Escherichia coli.Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 329-355Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). The cytoplasmic membrane protein YidC may facilitate this process and may mediate the folding of membrane proteins (13Nagamori S. Smirnova I.N. Kaback H.R. Role of YidC in folding of polytopic membrane proteins.J. Cell Biol. 2004; 165: 53-62Crossref PubMed Scopus (161) Google Scholar, 14van der Laan M. Nouwen N.P. Driessen A.J. YidC—an evolutionary conserved device for the assembly of energy-transducing membrane protein complexes.Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2005; 8: 182-187Crossref PubMed Scopus (53) Google Scholar). The SecB-dependent pathway targets secretory proteins in a mostly post-translational fashion to the cytoplasmic membrane (15Randall L.L. Hardy S.J. SecB, one small chaperone in the complex milieu of the cell.CMLS Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2002; 59: 1617-1623Crossref PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar, 16Mori H. Ito K. The Sec protein-translocation pathway.Trends Microbiol. 2001; 9: 494-500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (232) Google Scholar). Because the SRP and SecB pathways converge at the Sec translocon (17Valent Q.A. Scotti P.A. High S. de Gier J.W. von Heijne G. Lentzen G. Wintermeyer W. Oudega B. Luirink J. The Escherichia coli SRP and SecB targeting pathways converge at the translocon.EMBO J. 1998; 17: 2504-2512Crossref PubMed Scopus (245) Google Scholar) and because SecA engages both membrane and secretory proteins, it is possible that there is competition between sorting of secretory proteins (outer membrane and periplasmic proteins) and the integral membrane proteins of the cytoplasmic membrane. In addition, relatively little is known about stability, quality control, and degradation of membrane proteins, and it is not known to which extent proteolysis and folding affect overexpression. It is possible that overexpressed proteins are rapidly degraded by endogenous proteases located in the cytosol (such as the ClpP/X/A system) or located in the cytoplasmic membrane (such as FtsH and HtpX) (18Zolkiewski M. A camel passes through the eye of a needle: protein unfolding activity of Clp ATPases.Mol. Microbiol. 2006; 61: 1094-1100Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 19Sakoh M. Ito K. Akiyama Y. Proteolytic activity of HtpX, a membrane-bound and stress-controlled protease from Escherichia coli.J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 33305-33310Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, 20Ito K. Akiyama Y. Cellular functions, mechanism of action, and regulation of FtsH protease.Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2005; 59: 211-231Crossref PubMed Scopus (312) Google Scholar). This would lead to strongly reduced yields. Besides this, membrane protein overexpression could lead to a general problem of protein homeostasis of the endogenous proteome and lead to the induction of proteolysis and unwanted turnover. So far, the physiological response to overexpression of membrane proteins in E. coli (or other overexpression “vehicles”) has not been systematically studied, and therefore, this was the objective of this study. Three variants of E. coli membrane proteins (YidC, YedZ, and LepI) fused to GFP were overexpressed in E. coli BL21(DE3)pLysS from a pET-derived vector. The response was compared with overexpression of a soluble protein-GFP fusion, GST-GFP. Proteomes of total lysates, purified aggregates, and purified cytoplasmic membranes were analyzed by one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) PAGE and MS complemented with flow cytometry, microscopy, Western blotting, and pulse labeling experiments. Composition and accumulation levels of protein complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were analyzed with improved 2D blue native PAGE (BN-PAGE). Overexpression of the three membrane proteins, but not soluble GST-GFP, resulted in accumulation of cytoplasmic aggregates containing the overexpressed proteins, chaperones (DnaK/J and GroEL/S) and soluble proteases (HslUV and ClpXP) as well as many precursors of periplasmic and outer membrane proteins. This was consistent with lowered accumulation levels of secreted proteins in the three membrane protein overexpressors and is likely to be a direct consequence of saturation of the cytoplasmic membrane protein translocation machinery. Importantly accumulation levels of respiratory chain complexes in the cytoplasmic membrane were strongly reduced. Induction of the acetate-pta pathway for ATP production and a down-regulated tricarboxylic acid cycle indicated the activation of the Arc two-component system. This study provides a basis for designing rational strategies to improve yields of membrane protein overexpression. Proteins (YidC, YedZ, LepI, and GST) were overexpressed as GFP fusions in E. coli BL21(DE3)pLysS from a pET28a+-derived vector (21Waldo G.S. Standish B.M. Berendzen J. Terwilliger T.C. Rapid protein-folding assay using green fluorescent protein.Nat. Biotechnol. 1999; 17: 691-695Crossref PubMed Scopus (723) Google Scholar). Cells were grown aerobically in standard Luria-Bertani broth supplemented with kanamycin (50 μg/ml) and chloramphenicol (30 μg/ml). Overnight cultures were diluted 1:50. 1-liter cultures were grown in Tunair 2.5-liter baffled shaker flasks at 30 °C in an Innova 4330 (New Brunswick Scientific) shaker at 180 rpm. Growth was monitored by measuring the A600 with a Shimadzu UV-1601 spectrophotometer. The pH of the culture medium was monitored with a PHM220 pH meter from Radiometer. For all experiments, protein expression was induced by the addition of 0.4 mm isopropyl β-d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) (final concentration) at an A600 of 0.4–0.5, and cells were harvested 4 h after induction and used for further analysis. Cells with an empty expression vector were used as a control. Analysis of cells overexpressing GFP fusion proteins and control cells by means of flow cytometry was done using a FACSCalibur (BD Biosciences) instrument. Cultures were diluted in ice-cold PBS to a final concentration of ∼106 cells/ml immediately after harvesting. A low flow rate was used throughout data collection with an average of 250 events/s. Forward and side scatter acquisition was used for comparison of cell morphology (22Hewitt C.J. Nebe-Von-Caron G. The application of multi-parameter flow cytometry to monitor individual microbial cell physiological state.Adv. Biochem. Eng. Biotechnol. 2004; 89: 197-223PubMed Google Scholar), and the cellular accumulation levels of GFP fusion proteins were measured by GFP fluorescence intensity. Cells were incubated on ice for 30 min with a 0.2 μm concentration of the membrane-specific fluorophore FM4-64 (Invitrogen) to compare the amount of membranes per cell, allowing derivation of the relative cell size (23Gunderson C.W. Segall A.M. DNA repair, a novel antibacterial target: Holliday junction-trapping peptides induce DNA damage and chromosome segregation defects.Mol. Microbiol. 2006; 59: 1129-1148Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar). Data acquisition was performed using CellQuest software (BD Biosciences), and data were analyzed with FloJo software (Tree Star). For microscopy, cells were mounted on a slide and immobilized in 1% low melting agarose. Microscopy was performed on a Zeiss Axioplan2 fluorescence microscope equipped with an Orca-ER camera (Hamamatsu). Images were processed with the AxioVision 4.5 software from Zeiss. For analysis of a filamentous growth phenotype, around 700 cells were screened per sample. The expression levels of DnaK, Ffh, FtsH, FtsY, GroEL, HtpX, IbpA/B, L5, SecA, SecB, SecE, SecG, and SecY in whole cell lysates or cytoplasmic membranes were monitored by Western blotting analysis. Whole cells (0.025–0.1 A600 unit) and purified cytoplasmic membranes (3–5 μg of protein) were solubilized in Laemmli solubilization buffer and separated by standard SDS-PAGE. Proteins were transferred from the polyacrylamide gel to a PVDF membrane (Millipore). Subsequently membranes were blocked and decorated with antisera to the components listed above as described before (24Baars L. Ytterberg A.J. Drew D. Wagner S. Thilo C. van Wijk K.J. de Gier J.W. Defining the role of the Escherichia coli chaperone SecB using comparative proteomics.J. Biol. Chem. 2006; 281: 10024-10034Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar). Proteins were visualized with secondary horseradish peroxidase-conjugated antibodies (Bio-Rad) using the ECL system (according to the instructions of the manufacturer, GE Healthcare) and a Fuji LAS 1000-Plus charge-coupled device camera. Blots were quantified using the Image Gauge 3.4 software (Fuji). Experiments were done with independent triplicate samples and were reproducible within 10%. 2D gel electrophoresis of whole cell lysates was performed as described previously (24Baars L. Ytterberg A.J. Drew D. Wagner S. Thilo C. van Wijk K.J. de Gier J.W. Defining the role of the Escherichia coli chaperone SecB using comparative proteomics.J. Biol. Chem. 2006; 281: 10024-10034Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar). Aggregates (see below) containing 250 μg of protein were solubilized in 7 m urea, 2 m thiourea, 1% (w/v) ASB-14, 2 mm tributylphosphine, 5% glycerol, 2% (v/v) IPG buffer for pH 4–7 (GE Healthcare), and bromphenol blue (25Molloy M.P. Herbert B.R. Slade M.B. Rabilloud T. Nouwens A.S. Williams K.L. Gooley A.A. Proteomic analysis of the Escherichia coli outer membrane.Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 2871-2881Crossref PubMed Scopus (407) Google Scholar). 11-cm-long Immobiline DryStrips, pH 4–7 (GE Healthcare), were used, and isoelectric focusing was performed for 60 kV-h. Aggregated proteins were separated in the second dimension on 8–16% precast Criterion gels (Bio-Rad). Electrophoresis was performed in a Criterion Dodeca cell (Bio-Rad) at 100–200 V until the dye front reached the bottom of the gel. Gels used for comparative analysis were stained with high sensitivity silver stain (26Oakley B.R. Kirsch D.R. Morris N.R. A simplified ultrasensitive silver stain for detecting proteins in polyacrylamide gels.Anal. Biochem. 1980; 105: 361-363Crossref PubMed Scopus (2448) Google Scholar), and preparative gels used for MS-based identification of proteins were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 or MS-compatible silver stain (27Shevchenko A. Wilm M. Vorm O. Mann M. Mass spectrometric sequencing of proteins silver-stained polyacrylamide gels.Anal Chem. 1996; 68: 850-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (7807) Google Scholar). Protein aggregates were isolated as described previously (28Tomoyasu T. Mogk A. Langen H. Goloubinoff P. Bukau B. Genetic dissection of the roles of chaperones and proteases in protein folding and degradation in the Escherichia coli cytosol.Mol. Microbiol. 2001; 40: 397-413Crossref PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar). 50 ml of culture were used for each aggregate isolation. The protein content of total cells and aggregates was determined with the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay according to the instructions of the manufacturer (Pierce). Aggregates were analyzed using three different methods: by SDS-PAGE using 24-cm-long 8–16% acrylamide gradient gels, by Bio-Rad Criterion system 2D gels (see “2D Gel Electrophoresis” above) (both 1D and 2D gels were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 and subjected to MS as described below), and finally by a direct in-solution digest followed by nano-LC-ESI-MS/MS essentially as described before (29Peltier J.B. Ytterberg A.J. Sun Q. van Wijk K.J. New functions of the thylakoid membrane proteome of Arabidopsis thaliana revealed by a simple, fast, and versatile fractionation strategy.J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 49367-49383Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar). Cell fractionation was carried out essentially as described before (30Marani P. Wagner S. Baars L. Genevaux P. de Gier J.W. Nilsson I. Casadio R. von Heijne G. New Escherichia coli outer membrane proteins identified through prediction and experimental verification.Protein Sci. 2006; 15: 884-889Crossref PubMed Scopus (41) Google Scholar) using two subsequent sets of sucrose density gradients. Cells were cultured as described above, harvested at 6000 × g using a Beckman 8.1000 rotor, and washed once with buffer K (50 mm triethanolamine (TEA), 250 mm sucrose, 1 mm EDTA, 1 mm DTT, pH 7.5). The cell pellets were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 °C. 1000 A600 units of cells were resuspended in 8 ml of buffer K supplemented with 0.1 mg/ml Pefabloc and 5 μg/ml DNase and lysed by two cycles of French pressing (18,000 p.s.i.). The lysate was cleared of unbroken cells by 20-min centrifugation at 8000 × g. The supernatant was applied on top of a two-step sucrose gradient: bottom, 0.8 ml of 55% (w/w) sucrose; top, 5.0 ml of 9% (w/w) sucrose. All sucrose gradients were prepared in buffer M (50 mm TEA, 1 mm EDTA, 1 mm DTT, pH 7.5). The gradients were centrifuged for 2.5 h at 210,000 × g in a Beckman SW 41 rotor, and the membrane fraction was collected from the top of the 55% sucrose layer. This fraction, which contains the total membranes, was diluted 1:3 with buffer M and subjected to a six-step sucrose gradient centrifugation run to obtain pure cytoplasmic membrane fractions. The composition of this second gradient was as follows (from bottom to top): 0.7 ml of 55%, 1.4 ml of 50%, 1.5 ml of 45%, 2.2 ml of 40%, 1.8 ml of 35%, 0.9 ml of 30% (all w/w) sucrose, and 3.3 ml of the sample. The gradients were centrifuged for 15 h at 210,000 × g in a Beckman SW 41 rotor, and the cytoplasmic membrane fraction was collected from the top of the 40% sucrose layer. The protein concentration of the fraction was determined using the BCA assay according to the manufacturer's instructions (Pierce). The concentrations of the membrane samples were adjusted to 0.5 mg/ml with buffer L (50 mm TEA, 250 mm sucrose, 1 mm DTT, pH 7.5), and aliquoted samples were stored at −80 °C. The cytoplasmic membrane fraction was analyzed by Western blotting, SDS-PAGE using 24-cm-long 8–16% acrylamide gradient gels, and 2D BN-PAGE (see below). Blue native electrophoresis as described previously (31Schagger H. von Jagow G. Blue native electrophoresis for isolation of membrane protein complexes in enzymatically active form.Anal. Biochem. 1991; 199: 223-231Crossref PubMed Scopus (1901) Google Scholar) was modified to enable the relative quantification of membrane proteomes in the following way (see Fig. 8A). 1-mm-thick first dimension polyacrylamide gels were cast onto GelBond PAG film as recommended by the manufacturer (Cambrex). 5–14% gradient gels were used to resolve proteins and protein complexes between 1000 and 60 kDa. Cytoplasmic membranes prepared as described above were pelleted and subsequently solubilized in buffer containing 750 mm 6-aminocaproic acid, 50 mm bis-Tris-HCl (pH 7.0 at 4 °C), and freshly prepared 0.5% (w/v) n-dodecyl-β-d-maltopyranoside. After removal of unsolubilized material by centrifugation (100,000 × g for 30 min), Serva Blue G was added to a final concentration of 0.5% (w/v), and the samples were loaded onto the first dimension gel. Coomassie-containing cathode buffer was used throughout the run. Electrophoresis of the first dimension was performed at 100–400 V until the dye front reached the end of the gel. For calibration, ferritin (440 and 880 kDa), aldolase (158 kDa), and albumin (66 kDa) (GE Healthcare) were used as molecular mass markers. Lanes cut from the first dimension gel were equilibrated for 15 min in a buffer containing 2% SDS, 5 mm tributylphosphine followed by equilibration for 15 min in 2% SDS, 260 mm iodoacetamide. The lanes were mounted on top of the 1.5-mm-thick second dimension gel by submerging the strips in warm agarose solution (1% (w/v) low melting agarose, 0.5% SDS, bromphenol blue). The samples were separated in the second dimension on 10% Duracryl (Genomic Solutions) gels (10% acrylamide monomer and 1% bisacrylamide) containing 1 m Tris-HCl (pH 8.45), 0.1% (w/v) SDS, and 20% (v/v) glycerol. Electrophoresis was performed with a Tricine-SDS buffer system (32Schagger H. Aquila H. Von Jagow G. Coomassie blue-sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis for direct visualization of polypeptides during electrophoresis.Anal. Biochem. 1988; 173: 201-205Crossref PubMed Scopus (144) Google Scholar) in an Ettan DALTtwelve system (GE Healthcare) at 80 V for ∼48 h until the dye front reached the bottom of the gel. Gels were stained with colloidal Coomassie stain (33Neuhoff V. Arold N. Taube D. Ehrhardt W. Improved staining of proteins in polyacrylamide gels including isoelectric focusing gels with clear background at nanogram sensitivity using Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 and R-250.Electrophoresis. 1988; 9: 255-262Crossref PubMed Scopus (2350) Google Scholar). Gels were scanned using a GS-800 densitometer from Bio-Rad. Spots in 2D gels were analyzed using the PDQuest software (Bio-Rad). Each comparative standard 2D gel analysis set included four gels, and each comparative 2D BN-PAGE analysis set included three gels. All gels in a set represented independent samples (i.e. samples from different bacterial colonies and cultures), which were subjected to 2D gel and image analysis. Spot quantities were normalized using the “total density in gel image” method to compensate for non-expression-related variations in spot quantities between gels. PDQuest was set to detect differences that were found to be statistically significant using the Student's t test and a 95% level of confidence, including qualitative differences (“on/off responses”) present in all gels in a group and quantitative differences in at least one replicate group. In analysis sets of 2D BN-PAGE gels, differences were only accepted if the spot intensities were at least 2-fold with a 95% level of confidence. The quantification of saturated spots was approximated using the “contour tool” of PDQuest. Stained protein spots or bands were excised, washed, and digested with modified trypsin; peptides were extracted manually or automatically (ProGest, Genomic Solutions); and peptides were applied to the MALDI target plates as described previously (34Peltier J.B. Emanuelsson O. Kalume D.E. Ytterberg J. Friso G. Rudella A. Liberles D.A. Soderberg L. Roepstorff P. von Heijne G. van Wijk K.J. Central functions of the lumenal and peripheral thylakoid proteome of Arabidopsis determined by experimentation and genome-wide prediction.Plant Cell. 2002; 14: 211-236Crossref PubMed Scopus (371) Google Scholar). The mass spectra were obtained automatically by MALDI-TOF MS in reflectron mode (Voyager-DE-STR, PerSeptive Biosystems) followed by automatic internal calibration using tryptic peptides from autodigestion. The spectra were analyzed for monoisotopic peptide peaks (m/z range, 850–5000) using the software MoverZ from Genomic Solutions with a signal to noise ratio threshold of 3.0. Matrix and/or autoproteolytic trypsin fragments were not removed unless otherwise indicated (see below). Spectral annotations (in particular assignments of monoisotopic masses) were verified by manual inspection for a large number of measurements. The resulting peptide mass lists were used to search the Swiss-Prot 48.1 database (release September 2