One reason why pancreatic cancer is so aggressive and unresponsive to treatments is its resistance to apoptosis. We report here that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a prosurvival, antiapoptotic factor in pancreatic cancer cells. Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells generated ROS, which was stimulated by growth factors (serum, insulin-like growth factor I, or fibroblast growth factor-2). Growth factors also stimulated membrane NAD(P)H oxidase activity in these cells. Both intracellular ROS and NAD(P)H oxidase activity were inhibited by antioxidants tiron and N-acetylcysteine and the inhibitor of flavoprotein-dependent oxidases, diphenylene iodonium, but not by inhibitors of various other ROS-generating enzymes. Using Rho0 cells deficient in mitochondrial DNA, we showed that a nonmitochondrial NAD(P)H oxidase is a major source of growth factor-induced ROS in pancreatic cancer cells. Among proteins that have been implicated in NAD(P)H oxidase activity, MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells do not express the phagocytic gp91phox subunit but express several nonphagocytic oxidase (NOX) isoforms. Transfection with Nox4 antisense oligonucleotide inhibited NAD(P)H oxidase activity and ROS production in MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells. Inhibiting ROS with the antioxidants, Nox4 antisense, or MnSOD overexpression all stimulated apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells as measured by internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, phosphatidylserine externalization, cytochrome c release, and effector caspase activation. The results show that growth factor-induced ROS produced by NAD(P)H oxidase (probably Nox4) protect pancreatic cancer cells from apoptosis. This mechanism may play an important role in pancreatic cancer resistance to treatment and thus represent a novel therapeutic target. One reason why pancreatic cancer is so aggressive and unresponsive to treatments is its resistance to apoptosis. We report here that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a prosurvival, antiapoptotic factor in pancreatic cancer cells. Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells generated ROS, which was stimulated by growth factors (serum, insulin-like growth factor I, or fibroblast growth factor-2). Growth factors also stimulated membrane NAD(P)H oxidase activity in these cells. Both intracellular ROS and NAD(P)H oxidase activity were inhibited by antioxidants tiron and N-acetylcysteine and the inhibitor of flavoprotein-dependent oxidases, diphenylene iodonium, but not by inhibitors of various other ROS-generating enzymes. Using Rho0 cells deficient in mitochondrial DNA, we showed that a nonmitochondrial NAD(P)H oxidase is a major source of growth factor-induced ROS in pancreatic cancer cells. Among proteins that have been implicated in NAD(P)H oxidase activity, MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells do not express the phagocytic gp91phox subunit but express several nonphagocytic oxidase (NOX) isoforms. Transfection with Nox4 antisense oligonucleotide inhibited NAD(P)H oxidase activity and ROS production in MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells. Inhibiting ROS with the antioxidants, Nox4 antisense, or MnSOD overexpression all stimulated apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells as measured by internucleosomal DNA fragmentation, phosphatidylserine externalization, cytochrome c release, and effector caspase activation. The results show that growth factor-induced ROS produced by NAD(P)H oxidase (probably Nox4) protect pancreatic cancer cells from apoptosis. This mechanism may play an important role in pancreatic cancer resistance to treatment and thus represent a novel therapeutic target. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is an aggressive malignancy resistant to chemotherapy and radiotherapy (1Wanebo H.J. Vezeridis M.P. Cancer. 1996; 78: 580-591Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar). One mechanism mediating pancreatic cancer aggressiveness and unresponsiveness to treatment is its resistance to apoptosis. Constitutive activation of antiapoptotic proteins such as transcription factors NF-κB (2Aggarwal B.B. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2000; 60: 1033-1039Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar) and signal transducers and activators of transcription (3Battle T.E. Frank D.A. Curr. Mol. Med. 2002; 2: 381-392Crossref PubMed Scopus (252) Google Scholar), heat shock proteins (4Beere H.M. Green D.R. Trends Cell Biol. 2001; 11: 6-10Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (387) Google Scholar), or phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (5Nicholson K.M. Anderson N.G. Cell Signal. 2002; 14: 381-395Crossref PubMed Scopus (1394) Google Scholar) is thought to contribute to pancreatic cancer resistance to apoptosis. We hypothesized that a key factor mediating this resistance is ROS 1The abbreviations used are: ROS, reactive oxygen species; CMX-Ros, MitoTracker Red; DPI, diphenylene iodonium; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorter; FBS, fetal bovine serum; FGF-2, basic fibroblast growth factor; IGF-I, insulin-like growth factor-I; MnSOD, manganese superoxide dismutase; mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA; NAC, N-acetylcysteine; AMC, aminomethylcoumarin; NOS, nitric-oxide synthase; PLA2, phospholipase A2; DCFH-DA, 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein diacetate; CHAPS, 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonic acid; NOX, nonphagocytic oxidase; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; l-NAME, N-ω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester; AACOCF3, arachidonyl trifluoromethylketone. generated in pancreatic cancer cells. Although ROS have long been thought to promote cell death (6Simon H.U. Haj-Yehia A. Levi-Schaffer F. Apoptosis. 2000; 5: 415-418Crossref PubMed Scopus (2313) Google Scholar, 7Kannan K. Jain S.K. 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In this regard, we recently showed (13Mouria M. Gukovskaya A.S. Jung Y. Buechler P. Hines O.J. Reber H.A. Pandol S.J. Int. J. Cancer. 2002; 98: 761-769Crossref PubMed Scopus (263) Google Scholar) that compounds with antioxidative properties, quercetin, resveratrol and genistein, stimulated apoptosis of pancreatic cancer cells both in vitro and in vivo. ROS are highly reactive O2 metabolites that include superoxide radical (O2−˙), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radical (OH·) (14Thannickal V.J. Fanburg B.L. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: L1005-L1028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Large quantities of ROS are produced by phagocytes, mediating host defense against invading microorganisms (15Babior B.M. Lambeth J.D. Nauseef W. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2002; 397: 342-344Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar). ROS generation was also detected in nonphagocytic cells (14Thannickal V.J. Fanburg B.L. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: L1005-L1028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 16Li J.M. 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Biophys. 2002; 397: 342-344Crossref PubMed Scopus (712) Google Scholar). Recently, proteins of the nonphagocytic oxidase (NOX) family homologous to gp91phox have been shown to generate ROS in nonphagocytic, in particular cancer, cells (12Brar S.S. Corbin Z. Kennedy T.P. Hemendinger R. Thornton L. Bommarius B. Arnold R.S. Whorton A.R. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Krenitsky K. Ardie K.G. Lambeth J.D. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: C353-C369Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar, 19Lambeth J.D. Curr. Opin. Hematol. 2002; 9: 11-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (232) Google Scholar, 20Bokoch G.M. Knaus U.G. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2003; 28: 502-508Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (351) Google Scholar, 21Brar S.S. Kennedy T.P. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Whorton A.R. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2002; 282: C1212-C1224Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar). Furthermore, functional components of the phagocytic NAD(P)H oxidase have been found to mediate superoxide production in some nonphagocytic cells (22Cheng G. Cao Z. Xu X. van Meir E.G. Lambeth J.D. Gene (Amst.). 2001; 269: 131-140Crossref PubMed Scopus (707) Google Scholar, 23Takeya R. Ueno N. Kami K. Taura M. Kohjima M. Izaki T. Nunoi H. Sumimoto H. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 25234-25246Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (326) Google Scholar). Other ROS-generating enzymes are xanthine oxidase, nitric-oxide synthase (NOS), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and lipoxygenases (14Thannickal V.J. Fanburg B.L. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: L1005-L1028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). A growing body of evidence indicates that ROS play signaling roles in physiologic and pathophysiologic processes, including proliferation (24Sauer H. Wartenberg M. Hescheler J. Cell Physiol. Biochem. 2001; 11: 173-186Crossref PubMed Scopus (929) Google Scholar), adhesion (25Chiarugi P. Pani G. Giannoni E. Taddei L. Colavitti R. Raugei G. Symons M. Borrello S. Galeotti T. Ramponi G. J. Cell Biol. 2003; 161: 933-944Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar), and hypertension (17Lassegue B. Clempus R.E. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: R277-R297Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar, 26Li J.M. Shah A.M. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2003; 14: S221-S226Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). In particular, growth factors are known to stimulate ROS in a variety of cell types through receptor-transducing pathways, although the detailed mechanism is poorly understood (14Thannickal V.J. Fanburg B.L. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: L1005-L1028Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Growth factor-induced ROS production is believed to be necessary for optimal propagation of mitogenic signals (24Sauer H. Wartenberg M. Hescheler J. Cell Physiol. Biochem. 2001; 11: 173-186Crossref PubMed Scopus (929) Google Scholar). Recent data have demonstrated an important role of ROS in neoplastic proliferation. Nox1 overexpression transforms normal fibroblasts and creates a cell line that is tumorigenic in athymic mice (27Suh Y.A. Arnold R.S. Lassegue B. Shi J. Xu X. Sorescu D. Chung A.B. Griendling K.K. Lambeth J.D. Nature. 1999; 401: 79-82Crossref PubMed Scopus (1284) Google Scholar, 28Arnold R.S. Shi J. Murad E. Whalen A.M. Sun C.Q. Polavarapu R. Parthasarathy S. Petros J.A. Lambeth J.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 5550-5555Crossref PubMed Scopus (423) Google Scholar). Nox4 was found to regulate growth of malignant melanoma cells (21Brar S.S. Kennedy T.P. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Whorton A.R. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2002; 282: C1212-C1224Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar); Nox5 was found to regulate growth of prostate cancer cells (12Brar S.S. Corbin Z. Kennedy T.P. Hemendinger R. Thornton L. Bommarius B. Arnold R.S. Whorton A.R. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Krenitsky K. Ardie K.G. Lambeth J.D. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: C353-C369Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar). Compared with their roles in growth and proliferation, the effect of ROS on cell death is less well understood. Most data show that ROS stimulate cell death (6Simon H.U. Haj-Yehia A. Levi-Schaffer F. Apoptosis. 2000; 5: 415-418Crossref PubMed Scopus (2313) Google Scholar, 7Kannan K. Jain S.K. Pathophysiology. 2000; 7: 153-163Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (936) Google Scholar, 8Davis Jr., W. Ronai Z. Tew K.D. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2001; 296: 1-6PubMed Google Scholar). In particular, exogenous H2O2 causes apoptosis at low doses and necrosis at high doses (29Sakamoto T. Repasky W.T. Uchida K. Hirata A. Hirata F. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1996; 220: 643-647Crossref PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar). Recent data suggest, however, that ROS inhibit apoptosis in smooth muscle (9Wedgwood S. Black S.M. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: L305-L312PubMed Google Scholar), leukemia cells (10Clement M.V. Stamenkovic I. EMBO J. 1996; 15: 216-225Crossref PubMed Scopus (234) Google Scholar), colorectal (11Lin K.I. Pasinelli P. Brown R.H. Hardwick J.M. Ratan R.R. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 13650-13655Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar), and prostate cancer cells (12Brar S.S. Corbin Z. Kennedy T.P. Hemendinger R. Thornton L. Bommarius B. Arnold R.S. Whorton A.R. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Krenitsky K. Ardie K.G. Lambeth J.D. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: C353-C369Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar). The prosurvival effect of ROS can be mediated through antiapoptotic redox-sensitive pathways known to be activated by ROS (e.g. NF-κB and heat shock proteins) (30Green D.R. Mol. Cell. 2003; 11: 551-552Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar, 31Garrido C. Gurbuxani S. Ravagnan L. Kroemer G. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2001; 286: 433-442Crossref PubMed Scopus (669) Google Scholar). Little is known about the sources and the roles of ROS in pancreatic cancer cells. Inhibition of lipoxygenase (a putative source of ROS) as well as overexpression of an antioxidant enzyme, MnSOD, attenuated the growth of human pancreatic cancer cells (32Tong W.G. Ding X.Z. Witt R.C. Adrian T.E. Mol. Cancer Ther. 2002; 1: 929-935PubMed Google Scholar, 33Cullen J.J. Weydert C. Hinkhouse M.M. Ritchie J. Domann F.E. Spitz D. Oberley L.W. Cancer Res. 2003; 63: 1297-1303PubMed Google Scholar). The present study sought to determine the sources of ROS generation, their stimulation by growth factors, and whether ROS affect apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells. We found that growth factors stimulate ROS generation by activating membrane nonmitochondrial NAD(P)H oxidase (probably Nox4) and that inhibiting ROS by different approaches stimulates apoptosis in pancreatic cancer cells. The prosurvival effect of ROS may be an important mechanism of pancreatic cancer cell resistance to therapy. Reagents—2′,7′-Dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) was from Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR); Ac-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-AMC was from Peptide Institute, Inc. (Osaka, Japan); benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(OMe)-CH2F was from Enzyme Systems Products (Livermore, CA). The Nox4 antibody generated from a His-tagged recombinant fragment of human Nox4 (encoding the C-terminal amino acids 494–513) was a gift from Dr. Barry J. Goldstein (Jefferson Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA). Anti-cytochrome c antibody was from PharMingen (San Diego, CA); anti-cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV antibody was from Molecular Probes; anti-MnSOD antibody was from Upstate Biotechnology, Inc. (Lake Placid, NY). All other reagents were from Sigma. Cell Culture—Human pancreatic adenocarcinoma cell lines, the poorly differentiated MIA PaCa-2 and moderately differentiated PANC-1, were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA). Cells were grown in 1:1 Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F-12 medium (Gibco) supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 4 mm l-glutamine, and antibiotic/antimicotic solution (Omega Scientific, Tarzana, CA). Cells were maintained at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere containing 5% CO2 and were used between passages 4 and 12. For analyses, cells were plated at a density of 5 × 105/ml in 100-mm culture dishes in the presence and absence of 15% FBS, 100 ng/ml insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), and 50 ng/ml basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) or the indicated inhibitors and cultured for up to 72 h in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F-12 medium. Generation of Rho0 Cells—MIA PaCa-2 Rho0 cells depleted of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were generated by incubating wild type cells (Rho+) for 6–8 weeks with 100 ng/ml ethidium bromide. The medium was supplemented with 4.5 mg/ml glucose, 50 μg/ml uridine, and 100 μg/ml pyruvate to compensate for the respiratory metabolism deficit as previously described (34King M.P. Attardi G. Science. 1989; 246: 500-503Crossref PubMed Scopus (1465) Google Scholar, 35King M.P. Methods Enzymol. 1996; 264: 339-344Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). After selection, the MIA PaCa-2 Rho0 cells were cultured in the above specified medium without ethidium bromide. To verify the mtDNA depletion, total cellular DNA was extracted and subjected to PCR using two pairs of human mtDNA specific primers: 1) Mts1 (forward) (5′-cctagggataacagcgcaat) and Mtas1 (reverse) (5′-tagaagagcgatggtgagag), which gave a 630-bp product, and 2) Mts2 (forward) (5′-aacatacccatggccaacct) and Mtas2 (reverse) (5′-ggcaggagtaatcagaggtg), which gave a 532-bp product (36Hail Jr., N. Youssef E.M. Lotan R. Cancer Res. 2001; 61: 6698-6702PubMed Google Scholar, 37Park K.S. Nam K.J. Kim J.W. Lee Y.B. Han C.Y. Jeong J.K. Lee H.K. Pak Y.K. Am. J. Physiol. 2001; 280: E1007-E1014PubMed Google Scholar). For control, we measured the expression of β-actin, which is coded by chromosomal DNA. Measurement of Intracellular ROS Levels—Intracellular ROS levels were measured by flow cytometry in cells loaded with the redox-sensitive dye DCFH-DA (38Royall J.A. Ischiropoulos H. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1993; 302: 348-355Crossref PubMed Scopus (1050) Google Scholar). The nonfluorescent DCFH-DA readily diffuses into the cells, where it is hydrolyzed to the polar derivative DCFH, which is oxidized in the presence of H2O2 to the highly fluorescent DCF. Approximately 1 × 106 cells were incubated in the dark for 30 min at 37 °C with 10 μm DCFH-DA, harvested, and resuspended in the medium without DCFH-DA. Fluorescence was recorded on FL-1 channel of FACScan® (Becton Dickinson). Measurement of NAD(P)H Oxidase Activity—Superoxide production was measured in total cell homogenates or in membrane and cytosolic fractions by using lucigenin-derived chemiluminescence as described in Refs. 39Rajagopalan S. Kurz S. Munzel T. Tarpey M. Freeman B.A. Griendling K.K. Harrison D.G. J. Clin. Invest. 1996; 97: 1916-1923Crossref PubMed Scopus (2165) Google Scholar and 40Sorescu D. Somers M.J. Lassegue B. Grant S. Harrison D.G. Griendling K.K. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2001; 30: 603-612Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar. Briefly, 50 μg of protein was diluted in 500 μl of 50 mm phosphate buffer containing 1 mm EGTA and 150 mm sucrose. Dark-adapted lucigenin was added to the sample, and chemiluminescence measurement was immediately started. Chemiluminescence (in arbitrary units) was measured at 15-s intervals for 1 min in a Turner 20/20 luminometer (Turner Designs, Sunnyvale, CA). NADPH or NADH (100 μm each) were used as substrates. The specificity of the measurement was confirmed by adding either a nonenzymatic superoxide scavenger, tiron (10 mm), or superoxide dismutase (200 units/ml; Sigma). In some experiments, the homogenate was preincubated for 30 min with various inhibitors of ROS-generating enzymes as described in the legend of Fig. 3. In this and other assays, protein concentration was measured by the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad). It has been shown (41Li Y. Zhu H. Kuppusamy P. Roubaud V. Zweier J.L. Trush M.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 2015-2023Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (480) Google Scholar, 42Janiszewski M. Souza H.P. Liu X. Pedro M.A. Zweier J.L. Laurindo F.R. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002; 32: 446-453Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar) that at high doses lucigenin can by itself stimulate additional superoxide production, which is especially pronounced with NADH as a substrate. This may result in overestimation of NAD(P)H oxidase activity in the homogenate. To exclude the artificial effect of lucigenin, we performed the following experiments. Chemiluminescence was measured in cell homogenates at 5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 μm lucigenin in the presence and absence of NADPH or NADH. At lucigenin concentrations 5–50 μm, the results showed much higher chemiluminescence with NADPH than with NADH. With 100–200 μm lucigenin, NADH-induced signals became larger than those induced by NADPH. The responses obtained with 5–50 μm but not with 100–200 μm lucigenin were blocked by DPI, an inhibitor of NAD(P)H-dependent oxidases. In accord with the data presented in Ref. 42Janiszewski M. Souza H.P. Liu X. Pedro M.A. Zweier J.L. Laurindo F.R. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2002; 32: 446-453Crossref PubMed Scopus (62) Google Scholar, these results show that 5–50 μm lucigenin does not induce an artificial O2−˙ production in pancreatic cancer cells. The kinetics of the chemiluminescence response was the same with lucigenin concentrations 5–50 μm; however, the magnitude of the signal was greater at 25 and 50 μm. Thus, the data presented were obtained with 25 or 50 μm lucigenin. Preparation of Total Cell Lysates—Cells were incubated in a lysis buffer (0.5 mm EDTA, 150 mm NaCl, 50 Tris, 0.5% Nonidet P-40, pH 7.5) for 1 h at 4 °C and centrifuged for 10 min at 13,000 × g, and supernatants were collected and stored at –80 °C until assayed. Cell Fractionation—Cells were resuspended in a lysis buffer (250 mm sucrose, 20 mm HEPES, 10 mm KCl, 1 mm Na-EGTA, 1 mm Na-EDTA, 2 mm MgCl2, pH 7.0), allowed to swell for 30 min at 4 °C, and then disrupted by 80 strokes in a Dounce homogenizer. Homogenates were centrifuged at 1,000 × g to pellet nuclei and cell debris. Supernatants were centrifuged at 13,000 × g for 30 min, and the cytosolic fraction (supernatant) was collected. The pellet (heavy membranes enriched with mitochondria) was lysed in radioimmune precipitation buffer (0.15 m NaCl, 50 mm Tris, 1% deoxycholic acid, 1% Triton X-100, 0.1% SDS, pH 7.2) for 1 h. To validate the quality of cytosolic and mitochondrial separation, both fractions were assessed by immunoblotting for the mitochondrial marker cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV. Reverse Transcription-PCR—The procedures were as we described previously (43Gukovsky I. Gukovskaya A.S. Blinman T.A. Zaninovic V. Pandol S.J. Am. J. Physiol. 1998; 275: G1402-G1414Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 44Blinman T.A. Gukovsky I. Mouria M. Zaninovic V. Livingston E. Pandol S.J. Gukovskaya A.S. Am. J. Physiol. 2000; 279: C1993-C2003Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Briefly, total RNA was obtained from pancreatic cancer cells with TRI reagent (Molecular Research Center, Cincinnati, OH) and reverse-transcribed using the SuperScript II preamplification kit (Invitrogen). cDNA derived from 0.5 μg of total RNA was subjected to PCR with human gene-specific, intron-spanning primers that are described in Table I. Target sequences were amplified at 56–58 °C. The reverse transcription-PCR products were all of the expected size (see Fig. 5).Table IPrimer sequences for human NAD(P)H subunitsmRNAForward primerReverse primerExpected sizeGenBank™ accession no.bpNox15′-acaaattccagtgtgcagaccac5′-agactggaatatcggtgacagca247AJ438989gp91phox (Nox2)5′-gggctgttcaatgcttgtggct5′-acatctttctcctcatcatggtgc413NM_000397Nox 35′-atgaacacctctggggtcagctga5′-ggatcggagtcactcccttcgctg458NM_015718Nox 45′-ctcagcggaatcaatcagctgtg5′-agaggaacacgacaatcagccttag286NM_016931Nox 55′-atcaagcggccccctttttttcac5′-ctcattgtcacactcctcgacagc630AF317889p22phox5′-gtgtttgtgtgcctgctggagt5′-ctgggcggctgcttgatggt320M21186p47phox5′-gtacccagccagcactatgtgt5′-aaagtagcctgtgacgtcgtct771NM_000265p67phox5′-ttcgagggaaccagctgataga5′-gcatgggaacactgagcttcac760M32011β-Actin5′-atgggtcagaaggattcctatgt5′-gaaggtctcaaacatgatctggg243NM_001101 Open table in a new tab Measurement of Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (Δψm)—Changes in Δψm were detected with the potential-sensitive probe MitoTracker Red (CMX-Ros; Molecular Probes), as we described previously (45Vaquero E.C. Edderkaoui M. Nam K.J. Gukovsky I. Pandol S.J. Gukovskaya A.S. Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 1188-1202Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). During the last 30 min of the incubation period, cells were loaded with 10 nm CMX-Ros for 30 min at 37 °C in the dark, washed twice with phosphate-buffered saline, and analyzed on the FACScan® using FL-3 detector. To completely dissipate Δψm, cells were treated with the uncoupling agent fluorocyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (FCCP; 50 μm) for 1 h before CMX-Ros staining. Transfections—Transient transfection with human MnSOD was performed using the LipofectAMINE 2000 reagent (Invitrogen). The pcDNA3-MnSOD plasmid was kindly provided by Dr. Larry W. Oberley (University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA). Transfection was done according to the manufacturer's instructions, using 5–8 μg of the plasmid DNA and 20 μl of LipofectAMINE for a 60-mm dish. Transfection efficiency was assessed by co-transfection of a green fluorescent protein plasmid. At 48 or 72 h post-transfection, cell lysates were collected, and the expression of the MnSOD protein was measured by Western blot analysis using a polyclonal anti-MnSOD antibody from Upstate Biotechnology. Transfection of MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 cells with Nox4 antisense oligonucleotide was done as described in Ref. 12Brar S.S. Corbin Z. Kennedy T.P. Hemendinger R. Thornton L. Bommarius B. Arnold R.S. Whorton A.R. Sturrock A.B. Huecksteadt T.P. Quinn M.T. Krenitsky K. Ardie K.G. Lambeth J.D. Hoidal J.R. Am. J. Physiol. 2003; 285: C353-C369Crossref PubMed Scopus (226) Google Scholar. 1.5 nmol of the Nox4 antisense phosphorthioate oligonucleotide, 5′-AGCTCCTCCAGGACACAGCC, was applied for a 60-mm dish. The Nox4 scrambled oligonucleotide, 5′-TCGAGGAGGTCCTGTGTCGG, was used as a control. 6 h post-transfection, fresh medium was supplied, and cells were cultured for an additional 48 or 72 h before the specified analyses. Western Blot Analysis—Proteins from cell lysates were separated by 4–20% SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen) and electrophoretically transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Nonspecific binding was blocked with 5% milk in Tris-buffered saline (4 mm Tris base, 100 mm NaCl, pH 7.5). Membranes were washed in Tris-buffered saline containing 0.05% Tween 20 (TTBS) and incubated for 2 h with the indicated primary antibodies and then for 1 h with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody. Blots were developed with the Supersignal Chemiluminescent Substrate (Pierce). Measurements of Apoptosis—Internucleosomal DNA fragmentation was measured by using the Cell Death Detection ELISAPlus kit (Roche Applied Science) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Absorbance values were normalized to cell number. Phosphatidylserine externalization was analyzed with the annexin-V-FLUOS staining kit from Roche Applied Science as we described before (45Vaquero E.C. Edderkaoui M. Nam K.J. Gukovsky I. Pandol S.J. Gukovskaya A.S. Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 1188-1202Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). Cells were collected and resuspended at a density of 1 × 106 cells in 500 μl of binding buffer containing 2 μl of annexin-V and 1 μlof propidium iodide, incubated in the dark for 30 min at room temperature, and analyzed by flow cytometry. Effector caspase (DEVDase) activity was measured by a fluorogenic assay in whole cell lysates using Ac-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-AMC as a substrate, as we described before (45Vaquero E.C. Edderkaoui M. Nam K.J. Gukovsky I. Pandol S.J. Gukovskaya A.S. Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 1188-1202Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). The lysate (50–100 μg of protein) was incubated with 10 μm substrate in a reaction buffer (25 mm HEPES (pH 7.5), 10% sucrose, 0.1% CHAPS, 10 mm dithiothreitol) at 37 °C. Caspase substrate cleavage releases AMC, which emits fluorescent signal with 380-nm excitation and 440-nm emission. Fluorescence was measured in a Shimadzu RF-1501 spectrofluorimeter and calibrated using a standard curve for AMC. Cytochrome c release into the cytosol was assayed by Western blot analysis of cytosolic fractions, as we described previously (45Vaquero E.C. Edderkaoui M. Nam K.J. Gukovsky I. Pandol S.J. Gukovskaya A.S. Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 1188-1202Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (69) Google Scholar). Statistical Analysis—Results are expressed as means ± S.E. from at least three independent experiments. Statistical analysis was done using unpaired Student's t test. The value of p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Growth Factors Stimulate Intracellular ROS Production in MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1 Pancreatic Carcinoma Cells through Flavoprotein-dependent Oxidase—Using the redox-sensitive fluorescence probe DCFH-DA, we determined that growth factors stimulated ROS production in pancreatic cancer cell lines (Fig. 1). In both MIA PaCa-2 (Fig. 1, A and C–E) and PANC-1 cells (Fig. 1B), intracellular ROS