SUMMARY The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is extensively innervated by both intrinsic neurons of the enteric nervous system (ENS) and extrinsic neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral ganglia that together regulate gut motility, secretion, and immunity. The GI tract also harbors a diverse microbiome, but interactions between the ENS and the gut microbes remain poorly understood. Herein, we activated gut-associated neurons in mice to determine effects on intestinal microbial communities and their metabolites, as well as on host physiology. We used recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors with enhanced tropism for the gut, and no targeting to the brain, to chemogenetically activate either choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-expressing or tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-expressing neurons in the periphery. Targeted activation of discrete neuronal subtypes distinctively altered the metagenome, fecal metabolome, and mouse and microbial proteomes. The resulting datasets provide a rich resource, revealing broad and previously unknown roles for ChAT + and TH + neurons in modulating microbiome structure, and providing evidence for novel ENS functions such as shaping bile acid profiles and regulating fungal colonization of the gut. Further, ChAT + neuronal activation upregulated transcriptional pathways for muscle cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and muscle development. Physiologically, while mice displayed increased fecal output following activation of gut-associated ChAT + and TH + neurons, only ChAT + neuronal activation resulted in increased colonic migrating motor complexes and diarrhea-like fluid secretion. These findings suggest that specific subsets of peripherally-activated ENS neurons differentially regulate the gut microbiome and GI physiology in mice.