Cysteine proteases of the papain superfamily are implicated in a number of cellular processes and are important virulence factors in the pathogenesis of parasitic disease. These enzymes have therefore emerged as promising targets for antiparasitic drugs. We report the crystal structures of three major parasite cysteine proteases, cruzain, falcipain-3, and the first reported structure of rhodesain, in complex with a class of potent, small molecule, cysteine protease inhibitors, the vinyl sulfones. These data, in conjunction with comparative inhibition kinetics, provide insight into the molecular mechanisms that drive cysteine protease inhibition by vinyl sulfones, the binding specificity of these important proteases and the potential of vinyl sulfones as antiparasitic drugs. Cysteine proteases of the papain superfamily are implicated in a number of cellular processes and are important virulence factors in the pathogenesis of parasitic disease. These enzymes have therefore emerged as promising targets for antiparasitic drugs. We report the crystal structures of three major parasite cysteine proteases, cruzain, falcipain-3, and the first reported structure of rhodesain, in complex with a class of potent, small molecule, cysteine protease inhibitors, the vinyl sulfones. These data, in conjunction with comparative inhibition kinetics, provide insight into the molecular mechanisms that drive cysteine protease inhibition by vinyl sulfones, the binding specificity of these important proteases and the potential of vinyl sulfones as antiparasitic drugs. Sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis), caused by Trypanosoma brucei, and malaria, caused by Plasmodium falciparum, are significant, parasitic diseases of sub-Saharan Africa (1Balakrishnan I. Gillespie S.H. Zuckerman J.N. Principles and Practice of Travel Medicine. John Wiley & Sons, New York2002: 91-124Crossref Google Scholar). Chagas' disease (South American trypanosomiasis), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, affects approximately, 16–18 million people in South and Central America. For all three of these protozoan diseases, resistance and toxicity to current therapies makes treatment increasingly problematic, and thus the development of new drugs is an important priority (2Docampo R. Moreno S.N. Parasitol Res. 2003; 90 (Suppl. 1): S10-S13Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 3Laufer M.K. Djimdé A.A. Plowe C.V. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007; 77: 160-169Crossref PubMed Scopus (58) Google Scholar, 4Ouellette M. Trop. Med. Int. Health. 2001; 6: 874-882Crossref PubMed Scopus (59) Google Scholar). T. cruzi, T. brucei, and P. falciparum produce an array of potential target enzymes implicated in pathogenesis and host cell invasion, including a number of essential and closely related papain-family cysteine proteases (5Caffrey C.R. Scory S. Steverding D. Curr. Drug Targets. 2000; 1: 155-162Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar, 6Rosenthal P.J. Int. J. Parasitol. 2004; 34: 1489-1499Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar). Inhibitors of cruzain and rhodesain, major cathepsin L-like papain-family cysteine proteases of T. cruzi and T. brucei rhodesiense (7Caffrey C.R. Hansell E. Lucas K.D. Brinen L.S. Alvarez Hernandez A. Cheng J. Gwaltney 2nd, S.L. Roush W.R. Stierhof Y.D. Bogyo M. Steverding D. McKerrow J.H. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2001; 118: 61-73Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar, 8Eakin A.E. Mills A.A. Harth G. McKerrow J.H. Craik C.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 7411-7420Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 9Nkemgu N.J. Grande R. Hansell E. McKerrow J.H. Caffrey C.R. Steverding D. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents. 2003; 22: 155-159Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar, 10Steverding D. Caffrey C.R. Sajid M. Mini. Rev. Med. Chem. 2006; 6: 1025-1032Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar) display considerable antitrypanosomal activity (11Engel J.C. Doyle P.S. McKerrow J.H. Medicina. 1999; 59 (Suppl. 2): 171-175PubMed Google Scholar, 12Vicik R. Hoerr V. Glaser M. Schultheis M. Hansell E. McKerrow J.H. Holzgrabe U. Caffrey C.R. Ponte-Sucre A. Moll H. Stich A. Schirmeister T. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2006; 16: 2753-2757Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar), and some classes have been shown to cure T. cruzi infection in mouse models (11Engel J.C. Doyle P.S. McKerrow J.H. Medicina. 1999; 59 (Suppl. 2): 171-175PubMed Google Scholar, 13Engel J.C. Doyle P.S. Hsieh I. McKerrow J.H. J. Exp. Med. 1998; 188: 725-734Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar, 14Engel J.C. Doyle P.S. Palmer J. Hsieh I. Bainton D.F. McKerrow J.H. J. Cell Sci. 1998; 111: 597-606Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). In P. falciparum, the papain-family cysteine proteases falcipain-2 (FP-2) 6The abbreviations used are: FP-2falcipain-2FP-3falcipain-3SAMStanford Automated MountingSSRLStanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsourcer.m.s.d.root mean square distanceVSPhphenyl vinyl sulfoneHphhomophenylalanylMumorpholino ureaN-MpipN-methylpiperazineBis-Tris2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diolZbenzyloxycarbonylAMCaminomethylcoumarin. and falcipain-3 (FP-3) are known to catalyze the proteolysis of host hemoglobin, a process that is essential for the development of erythrocytic parasites (15Rosenthal P.J. McKerrow J.H. Aikawa M. Nagasawa H. Leech J.H. J. Clin. Invest. 1988; 82: 1560-1566Crossref PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar, 16Sijwali P.S. Koo J. Singh N. Rosenthal P.J. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2006; 150: 96-106Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar, 17Sijwali P.S. Rosenthal P.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2004; 101: 4384-4389Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar). Specific inhibitors, targeted to both enzymes, display antiplasmodial activity (18Schulz F. Gelhaus C. Degel B. Vicik R. Heppner S. Breuning A. Leippe M. Gut J. Rosenthal P.J. Schirmeister T. ChemMedChem. 2007; 2: 1214-1224Crossref PubMed Scopus (44) Google Scholar). However, although the abnormal phenotype of FP-2 knock-outs is “rescued” during later stages of trophozoite development (17Sijwali P.S. Rosenthal P.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2004; 101: 4384-4389Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar), FP-3 has proved recalcitrant to gene knock-out (16Sijwali P.S. Koo J. Singh N. Rosenthal P.J. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2006; 150: 96-106Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar) suggesting a critical function for this enzyme and underscoring its potential as a drug target. falcipain-2 falcipain-3 Stanford Automated Mounting Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource root mean square distance phenyl vinyl sulfone homophenylalanyl morpholino urea N-methylpiperazine 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol benzyloxycarbonyl aminomethylcoumarin. Sequence analyses and substrate profiling identify cruzain, rhodesain, and FP-3 as cathepsin L-like, and several studies describe classes of small molecule inhibitors that target multiple cathepsin L-like cysteine proteases, some with overlapping antiparasitic activity (19Chen Y.T. Lira R. Hansell E. McKerrow J.H. Roush W.R. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2008; 18: 5860-5863Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 20Fujii N. Mallari J.P. Hansell E.J. Mackey Z. Doyle P. Zhou Y.M. Gut J. Rosenthal P.J. McKerrow J.H. Guy R.K. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2005; 15: 121-123Crossref PubMed Scopus (149) Google Scholar, 21González F.V. Izquierdo J. Rodriguez S. McKerrow J.H. Hansell E. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2007; 17: 6697-6700Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 22Greenbaum D.C. Mackey Z. Hansell E. Doyle P. Gut J. Caffrey C.R. Lehrman J. Rosenthal P.J. McKerrow J.H. Chibale K. J. Med. Chem. 2004; 47: 3212-3219Crossref PubMed Scopus (262) Google Scholar). Among these small molecules, vinyl sulfones have been shown to be effective inhibitors of a number of papain family-like cysteine proteases (19Chen Y.T. Lira R. Hansell E. McKerrow J.H. Roush W.R. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2008; 18: 5860-5863Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 23Ettari R. Nizi E. Di Francesco M.E. Dude M.A. Pradel G. Vicík R. Schirmeister T. Micale N. Grasso S. Zappalà M. J. Med. Chem. 2008; 51: 988-996Crossref PubMed Scopus (197) Google Scholar, 24Jaishankar P. Hansell E. Zhao D.M. Doyle P.S. McKerrow J.H. Renslo A.R. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2008; 18: 624-628Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar, 25Palmer J.T. Rasnick D. Klaus J.L. Brömme D. J. Med. Chem. 1995; 38: 3193-3196Crossref PubMed Scopus (492) Google Scholar, 26Rosenthal P.J. Olson J.E. Lee G.K. Palmer J.T. Klaus J.L. Rasnick D. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1996; 40: 1600-1603Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 27Shenai B.R. Lee B.J. Alvarez-Hernandez A. Chong P.Y. Emal C.D. Neitz R.J. Roush W.R. Rosenthal P.J. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003; 47: 154-160Crossref PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar). Vinyl sulfones have many desirable attributes, including selectivity for cysteine proteases over serine proteases, stable inactivation of the target enzyme, and relative inertness in the absence of the protease target active site (25Palmer J.T. Rasnick D. Klaus J.L. Brömme D. J. Med. Chem. 1995; 38: 3193-3196Crossref PubMed Scopus (492) Google Scholar). This class has also been shown to have desirable pharmacokinetic and safety profiles in rodents, dogs, and primates (28McKerrow J.H. Rosenthal P.J. Swenerton R. Doyle P. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2008; 21: 668-672Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar, 29Renslo A.R. McKerrow J.H. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2006; 2: 701-710Crossref PubMed Scopus (296) Google Scholar). We have determined the crystal structures of cruzain, rhodesain, and FP-3 bound to vinyl sulfone inhibitors and performed inhibition kinetics for each enzyme. Our results highlight key areas of interaction between proteases and inhibitors. These results help validate the vinyl sulfones as a class of antiparasitic drugs and provide structural insights to facilitate the design or modification of other small molecule inhibitor scaffolds. Recombinant cruzain was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified as described previously (8Eakin A.E. Mills A.A. Harth G. McKerrow J.H. Craik C.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1992; 267: 7411-7420Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 30Eakin A.E. McGrath M.E. McKerrow J.H. Fletterick R.J. Craik C.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1993; 268: 6115-6118Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar, 31Gillmor S.A. Craik C.S. Fletterick R.J. Protein Sci. 1997; 6: 1603-1611Crossref PubMed Scopus (169) Google Scholar). Activated cruzain was incubated overnight with molar excess amounts of inhibitor dissolved in DMSO to prevent further proteolytic activity. Complete enzymatic inhibition was confirmed via fluorometric assay with the substrate Z-Phe-Arg-AMC. Excess inhibitor was removed by anion-exchange chromatography. Fractions containing pure, inhibited cruzain were pooled and concentrated to 8 mg/ml, with tandem buffer exchange to 2 mm Bis-Tris, pH 5.8, using a Viva-Spin (Viva Science) column (molecular mass of 15 kDa). Crystals of maximum size were obtained after ∼4 days via the hanging drop method, from a solution of 1.25 m ammonium sulfate and 100 mm HEPES, pH 7.5, at 22 °C. Crystals were cryoprotected in mother liquor containing 20% ethylene glycol, mounted in standard cryo loops, and loaded into a sample cassette used with the Stanford Automated Mounting (SAM) system (32Cohen A.E. Ellis P.J. Deacon A.M. Miller M.D. Phizackerley R.P. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 2002; 35: 720-726Crossref PubMed Scopus (251) Google Scholar). All diffraction data were collected at the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL) Beamline 9-1, Menlo Park, CA, after selecting an optimal crystal from screening performed with the robotic SAM system (32Cohen A.E. Ellis P.J. Deacon A.M. Miller M.D. Phizackerley R.P. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 2002; 35: 720-726Crossref PubMed Scopus (251) Google Scholar). Data processing in the HKL2000 package (33Otwinowski Z. Minor W. Methods Enzymol. 1997; 276: 307-326Crossref PubMed Scopus (38773) Google Scholar) showed that crystals belonged to space group C2, and the structure was solved by molecular replacement using a model derived from cruzain bound to the vinyl sulfone, K11002 (PDB ID 1F29). Using MOLREP (34Vagin A. Teplyakov A. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 1997; 30: 1022-1025Crossref Scopus (4224) Google Scholar), two independent molecules were located with translation function scores of 14.49 and 14.03. Rigid body refinement of this solution yielded an Rfactor of 46%. Clear and representative density for the entirety of both inhibitor molecules in the asymmetric unit was observed at better than 1.5σ above the noise level. The model was completed by interspersing iterative rounds of model building in COOT (35Emsley P. Cowtan K. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 2004; 60: 2126-2132Crossref PubMed Scopus (24320) Google Scholar) and reciprocal space refinement in REFMAC5 (36Murshudov G.N. Vagin A.A. Dodson E.J. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 1997; 53: 240-255Crossref PubMed Scopus (14024) Google Scholar). Waters were placed with COOT and manually assessed. Molecules of the cryoprotectant ethylene glycol and the crystallization precipitant ammonium sulfate were also discernable in final electron density maps and placed manually with COOT. This structure has been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (code 2OZ2). All statistics for data collection, structure solution, and refinement are given in Table 1.TABLE 1X-ray diffraction data and structure refinement statisticsCruzain·K11777Rhodesain·K11777FP-3·K11017Data collection Space groupC2P1P41212 Cell dimensions a, b, c (Å)a = 134.3, b = 38.0, c = 95.2a = 34.4, b = 39.7, c = 39.6a = b = 114.0, c = 226.1 a, b, g90°, 114°, 90°120°, 94°, 101°90°, 90°, 90° Resolution (Å)1.95 (2.02-1.95)1.65 (1.70-1.65)2.42 (2.55-2.42) RmergeaRmerge = ΣΣI(h)j − (I(h))/ΣΣI(h)j, where I(h) is the measured diffraction intensity, and the summation includes all observations. (%)7.1 (15.3)4.7 (14.7)9.1 (37.3) I/σI26 (9.3)14.1 (3.9)21.8 (7.2) Completeness (%)97.7 (90.0)89.7 (83.7)100 (100) Redundancy3.6 (3.4)1.8 (1.3)14.2 (14.6)Refinement Rfree/Rfactor (%)20.7/15.717.5/13.520.9/17.5 Average B-factor (Å2)15.213.325.8 r.m.s.d. Bond length (Å)0.0190.0200.015 Bond angle1.6°1.7°1.5° Ramachandran plotbAs defined by Molprobity (45). Favored (%)97.495.897.2 Allowed (%)10099.599.8 Outliers (%)00.50.2 PDB ID2OZ22P7U3BWKa Rmerge = ΣΣI(h)j − (I(h))/ΣΣI(h)j, where I(h) is the measured diffraction intensity, and the summation includes all observations.b As defined by Molprobity (45Davis I.W. Leaver-Fay A. Chen V.B. Block J.N. Kapral G.J. Wang X. Murray L.W. Arendall 3rd, W.B. Snoeyink J. Richardson J.S. Richardson D.C. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007; 35: W375-383Crossref PubMed Scopus (3104) Google Scholar). Open table in a new tab Rhodesain (without the unusual C-terminal extension shared between trypanosomatid cathepsin Ls) was expressed in P. pastoris and purified as described previously (7Caffrey C.R. Hansell E. Lucas K.D. Brinen L.S. Alvarez Hernandez A. Cheng J. Gwaltney 2nd, S.L. Roush W.R. Stierhof Y.D. Bogyo M. Steverding D. McKerrow J.H. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2001; 118: 61-73Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar) with a Ser > Ala mutation incorporated at position 172 of the protein sequence to remove a glycosylation site from the mature domain. Active rhodesain was incubated with molar excess of the inhibitor, dissolved in DMSO. Extinction of activity was confirmed by fluorometric assay with the Z-Phe-Arg-N-methylcoumarin substrate. Purified rhodesain was concentrated to ∼7 mg/ml using vacuum dialysis in preparation for crystallization. Crystals of maximum size were obtained after ∼6 days via the hanging drop method, from a solution of 100 mm imidazole, pH 8.0, and 1.0 m sodium citrate at 18 °C. Diffraction data were collected at room temperature on a Rigaku RU200 rotating anode source using CuKα radiation at 1.54 Å and a Rigaku R-Axis IV detector. Data processing was performed in space group P1 with the HKL2000 software package (33Otwinowski Z. Minor W. Methods Enzymol. 1997; 276: 307-326Crossref PubMed Scopus (38773) Google Scholar). The structure was solved via molecular replacement in AMoRe (37Navaza J. Acta Crystallogr. A. 1994; 50: 157-163Crossref Scopus (5038) Google Scholar), using cruzain (PDB ID 1F2A) as a search model. The top solution had a correlation coefficient of 64.3 and an Rfactor of 37.7%. The inhibitor was manually placed and fit to the difference electron density using QUANTA (Accelrys). Clear and representative density for the entirety of the inhibitor molecule was observed at better than 1.5σ above the noise level. Water molecules were placed with COOT (35Emsley P. Cowtan K. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 2004; 60: 2126-2132Crossref PubMed Scopus (24320) Google Scholar) and then manually assessed. Final rounds of refinement were completed with REFMAC5 (36Murshudov G.N. Vagin A.A. Dodson E.J. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 1997; 53: 240-255Crossref PubMed Scopus (14024) Google Scholar). This structure has been deposited in the Protein Data Bank (code 2P7U). All statistics for data collection, structure solution, and refinement are given in Table 1. FP-3 was expressed in E. coli strain M15(pREP4) transformed with the hexa-His-tagged FP-3-pQE-30 construct. Overexpression, refolding, and purification were carried out according to published protocols (38Sijwali P.S. Shenai B.R. Gut J. Singh A. Rosenthal P.J. Biochem. J. 2001; 360: 481-489Crossref PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar). The activity of FP-3 was tested with the substrate Z-Leu-Arg-AMC, as described (39Pandey K.C. Wang S.X. Sijwali P.S. Lau A.L. McKerrow J.H. Rosenthal P.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005; 102: 9138-9143Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar), and completely abolished by the addition of vinyl sulfone inhibitor K11017 to a final concentration of 113 μm. Inhibited FP-3 was purified using a 10 ml of Q-Sepharose column and was eluted with a high salt buffer (20 mm Bis-Tris, pH 6.5, 0.5 m NaCl). Fractions that contained FP-3 were verified by SDS-PAGE, pooled, and buffer exchanged with 20 mm Bis-Tris, pH 6.5, and the enzyme was concentrated to ∼10 mg/ml. Crystals were grown using the hanging drop, vapor-diffusion method (40McPherson A. Preparation and Analysis of Protein Crystals. John Wiley & Sons, New York1982Google Scholar) from a mixture of 1 μl of protein solution (10 mg/ml) and 1 μl of reservoir solution (1.26 m ammonium sulfate, 100 mm Tris-HCl, pH 8.5, 200 mm lithium sulfate) incubated at room temperature against 1 ml of reservoir solution. Crystals grew to a maximum size of 50 × 50 × 100 μm in 5 days. Crystals of FP-3·K11017 grew as hexagonal rods. Cryoprotection was achieved by a brief soak in a solution containing mother-liquor solutions supplemented with 20% glycerol. All crystals were mounted in standard cryo loops and loaded into a sample cassette used with the SAM (32Cohen A.E. Ellis P.J. Deacon A.M. Miller M.D. Phizackerley R.P. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 2002; 35: 720-726Crossref PubMed Scopus (251) Google Scholar). Diffraction data were collected at SSRL Beamline 7-1. Reflection intensities were indexed and integrated using MOSFLM (41Leslie A.G. Joint CCP4 and ESF-EAMCB Newsletter on Protein Crystallography. 1992; 26Google Scholar). Data were scaled and merged in space group P41212 using SCALA (42Evans P.R. Joint CCP4 and ESF-EAMCB Newsletter on protein Crystallography. 1997; 33: 22-24Google Scholar). The structure of FP-3·K11017 was determined by molecular replacement in PHASER (43McCoy A.J. Grosse-Kunstleve R.W. Adams P.D. Winn M.D. Storoni L.C. Read R.J. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 2007; 40: 658-674Crossref PubMed Scopus (15277) Google Scholar) using the FP-3 component of the FP-3·leupeptin complex (PDB ID 3BPM). Four independent monomers were located in the asymmetric unit yielding a solution with an Rfactor of 31% and a log-likelihood gain of 7214. After initial rounds of rigid body refinement and simulated annealing in CNS (44Brünger A.T. Adams P.D. Clore G.M. DeLano W.L. Gros P. Grosse-Kunstleve R.W. Jiang J.S. Kuszewski J. Nilges M. Pannu N.S. Read R.J. Rice L.M. Simonson T. Warren G.L. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 1998; 54: 905-921Crossref PubMed Scopus (17024) Google Scholar), K11017 was positioned in the active site of all four monomers according to mFo − DFc SIGMAA-weighted electron density maps. Following several rounds of model building in COOT (35Emsley P. Cowtan K. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr. 2004; 60: 2126-2132Crossref PubMed Scopus (24320) Google Scholar) interspersed with positional and B-factor refinement in CNS, waters were placed in difference map peaks greater than or equal to 3σ with reasonable hydrogen bonding. The final model shows excellent stereochemistry as assessed by MOLPROBITY (45Davis I.W. Leaver-Fay A. Chen V.B. Block J.N. Kapral G.J. Wang X. Murray L.W. Arendall 3rd, W.B. Snoeyink J. Richardson J.S. Richardson D.C. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007; 35: W375-383Crossref PubMed Scopus (3104) Google Scholar). Statistics for this structure, which has been deposited in the PDB (3BWK), are summarized in Table 1. Reactions were run in a 96-well Microfluor-1 U-bottom plate (Thermo Electron) and monitored in a SpectraMax Gemini fluorescence spectrometer (Molecular Devices) with excitation of 355 nm and emission at 460 nm, with a cutoff at 435 nm. Reactions were carried out in 100 mm sodium acetate, pH 5.5, 5 mm dithiothreitol, 0.001% Triton X-100, and 1% DMSO. For the inhibitors K11017 and K11777, 10 mm stock solutions in 100% DMSO were made by weighing out lyophilized compound. Inhibition constants were determined under pseudo-first order conditions using the progress curves method (46Bieth J.G. Methods Enzymol. 1995; 248: 59-84Crossref PubMed Scopus (191) Google Scholar). Briefly, enzyme was added to a mixture of substrate and inhibitor, and the hydrolysis of an AMC substrate was monitored for 7 min (<10% total substrate hydrolysis). An observed rate constant, kobs, was calculated at each inhibitor concentration by fitting the progress curve to the equation, P = vi/kobs(1 − e(−kobst)), where P = product formation, vi = initial velocity, and time = t. Second order rate constants (either ka or Kinact/Ki) were determined depending on the kinetic behavior of the enzyme. If kobs varied linearly with inhibitor concentration, the association constant ka was determined by fitting to the linear equation, kobs = (ka[I])/(1 + [S]/Km). If kobs varied hyperbolically with [I], the kinact/KI was determined by non-linear regression using the equation, kobs = kintact[I]/([I] + KI(1 + [S]/Km)). The Km was experimentally determined using standard Michaelis-Menten kinetics, and all experiments were carried out in triplicate. For cruzain, the enzyme concentration was 2.5 nm, the substrate concentration was 8 μm Z-Phe-Arg-AMC (Km = 0.65 μm), and inhibitor concentrations varied from 1 μm to 0.1 μm. For rhodesain, the enzyme concentration was 8 nm, the substrate concentration was 4 μm Z-Phe-Arg-AMC (Km = 0.12 μm), and inhibitor concentrations varied from 10 μm to 0.1 μm. For FP-3, the enzyme concentration was 10 nm, the substrate concentration was 100 μm Z-Leu-Arg-AMC (Km = 86 μm), and inhibitor concentrations varied from 2 μm to 30 μm. The FP-3 activity buffer also contained 3% glycerol. The cruzain·K11777 complex, which crystallized with two complete copies of the mature enzyme (residues 1–215) in the asymmetric unit, was determined to 1.95-Å resolution. The model was refined to an Rfree of 20.7% and an Rfactor of 15.9%. Both copies are essentially identical, and superimposition matched all 215 α-carbons of each chain with a root mean square distance (r.m.s.d.) of 0.19 Å. The rhodesain·K11777 complex crystallized with a single complete copy of the mature enzyme in the asymmetric unit (residues 1–215). The complex was refined to a resolution of 1.65 Å yielding an Rfree of 17.5% and an Rfactor of 13.5%. The structure of the FP-3·K11017 complex crystallized with four copies of the complex in the asymmetric unit and was determined to 2.42 Å. This represents residues 8–249 of the mature enzyme. The final model was refined to an Rfree of 20.9% and Rfactor of 17.5%. All four copies of the complex are very similar (supplemental Table S1) and superimposition matches, on average, 234 α-carbons with a mean r.m.s.d. of 0.26 Å. All three enzymes share the common two-domain fold of papain superfamily cysteine proteases (Fig. 1). However, cruzain and rhodesain share a higher degree of structural similarity (214 α-carbons matching with an r.m.s.d. of 0.49 Å) than either does with FP-3 (191 and 190 α-carbons matching with an r.m.s.d. of 1.1 Å, respectively). The structure of FP-3 deviates slightly from the classic papain fold in having two insertions, one at either terminus, that are unique to plasmodial cysteine proteases (supplemental Fig. S1) (47Wang S.X. Pandey K.C. Scharfstein J. Whisstock J. Huang R.K. Jacobelli J. Fletterick R.J. Rosenthal P.J. Abrahamson M. Brinen L.S. Rossi A. Sali A. McKerrow J.H. Structure. 2007; 15: 535-543Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar, 48Wang S.X. Pandey K.C. Somoza J.R. Sijwali P.S. Kortemme T. Brinen L.S. Fletterick R.J. Rosenthal P.J. McKerrow J.H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2006; 103: 11503-11508Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar). The N-terminal insertion (residues 1–25) is well ordered in our complex and has been implicated in the correct folding of the enzyme (49Pandey K.C. Sijwali P.S. Singh A. Na B.K. Rosenthal P.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 3484-3491Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (48) Google Scholar, 50Sijwali P.S. Shenai B.R. Rosenthal P.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 14910-14915Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar). The C-terminal insertion is implicated in binding the in vivo substrate of FP-3, hemoglobin (39Pandey K.C. Wang S.X. Sijwali P.S. Lau A.L. McKerrow J.H. Rosenthal P.J. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005; 102: 9138-9143Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar, 48Wang S.X. Pandey K.C. Somoza J.R. Sijwali P.S. Kortemme T. Brinen L.S. Fletterick R.J. Rosenthal P.J. McKerrow J.H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2006; 103: 11503-11508Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar), and is composed of residues 194–207. In our structure, this insertion is ordered in monomers A and B, but residues 195–203 in chain C and 194–204 in chain D were too flexible to be included in the final model. For the sake of simplicity, unless otherwise indicated, our analyses were performed using chain A of each model. The chemical structures of K11017 (Mu-Leu-Hph-VSPh) and K11777 (N-Mpip-Phe-Hph-VSPh) are similar with phenyl vinyl sulfone (VSPh) at the P1′ position and homophenylalanyl (Hph) at the P1 position. Variation occurs at the P2 position, Leu and Phe, respectively, and the P3 position, morpholino urea (Mu) and N-methyl piperazine (N-Mpip) respectively (Fig. 2). The co-crystallized inhibitors span the respective S1′–S3 subsites and form an irreversible, covalent adduct with the sulfur of the active site cysteine thiol in each enzyme (Fig. 2). In each complex, there is a small conserved network of polar interactions between protein and inhibitor involving Gln-19, Gly-66, Asp-161, His-162, and Trp-184 (cruzain numbering, Fig. 3). These interactions serve to anchor the peptidyl backbone of the inhibitor in the protease active site and do not confer a preference for a particular substituent at any position (P1′–P3) of the bound inhibitor. Water-mediated and hydrophobic interactions also contribute to binding and are discussed in more detail below.FIGURE 3The active sites of cruzain (A), rhodesain (B), and falcipain-3 (C). Ball and stick representation shows the conserved catalytic triad and other important residues. The figure is colored as in Fig. 1 with each inhibitor in gray.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) To further investigate the utility of vinyl sulfones as inhibitors of papain family cysteine proteases we determined the inhibition kinetics of cruzain, rhodesain, and FP-3 in the presence of both K11017 and K11777 (Table 2). Inhibition was monitored using the progress curves method. For cruzain and FP-3 the observed inhibitory rate constants varied linearly with inhibitor concentration, and we therefore calculated ka, the association constant. In the case of rhodesain, the rate of inhibition varied hyperbolically with inhibitor concentration and the second order inhibition constant kinact/Ki was used (46Bieth J.G. Methods Enzymol. 1995; 248: 59-84Crossref PubMed Scopus (191) Google Scholar).TABLE 2Vinyl sulfone second order inhibition constantsCruzain, kaRhodesain, kinact/KiFP-3, kam−1 s−1K11017676,000264,0008,800K11777517,000150,0001,050 Open table in a new tab The kinetic data show potent inhibition of cruzain and rhodesain by each inhibitor, with K11017 showing slightly better inhibition of both enzymes. Cruzain and rhodesain tolerate a range of hydrophobic residues in their S2 subsites (51Choe Y. Leonetti F. Greenbaum D.C. Lecaille F. Bogyo M. Brömme D. Ellman J.A. Craik C.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2006; 281: 12824-12832Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (336) Google Scholar, 52O'Brien T.C. Mackey Z.B. Fetter R.D. Choe Y. O'Donoghue A.J. Zhou M. Craik C.S. Caffrey C.R. McKerrow J.H. J. Biol. Chem. 2008; 283: 28934-28943Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar), and, whereas a minor effect, we were unable to reconcile a slight preference for K11017 by con