Selected missense mutations in the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 serine protease gene (PCSK9) cause autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia, whereas nonsense mutations in the same gene are associated with low plasma levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Here, DNA sequencing and chip-based oligonucleotide hybridization were used to determine whether other sequence variations in PCSK9 contribute to differences in LDL-C levels. The coding regions of PCSK9 were sequenced in the blacks and whites from the Dallas Heart Study (n=3,543) who had the lowest (<5th percentile) and highest (>95th percentile) plasma levels of LDL-C. Of the 17 missense variants identified, 3 (R46L, L253F, and A443T) were significantly and reproducibly associated with lower plasma levels of LDL-C (reductions ranging from 3.5% to 30%). None of the low–LDL-C variants were associated with increased hepatic triglyceride content, as measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This finding is most consistent with the reduction in LDL-C being caused primarily by accelerating LDL clearance, rather than by reduced lipoprotein production. Association studies with 93 noncoding single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at the PCSK9 locus identified 3 SNPs associated with modest differences in plasma LDL-C levels. Thus, a spectrum of sequence variations ranging in frequency (from 0.2% to 34%) and magnitude of effect (from a 3% increase to a 49% decrease) contribute to interindividual differences in LDL-C levels. These findings reveal that PCSK9 activity is a major determinant of plasma levels of LDL-C in humans and make it an attractive therapeutic target for LDL-C lowering. Selected missense mutations in the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 serine protease gene (PCSK9) cause autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia, whereas nonsense mutations in the same gene are associated with low plasma levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). Here, DNA sequencing and chip-based oligonucleotide hybridization were used to determine whether other sequence variations in PCSK9 contribute to differences in LDL-C levels. The coding regions of PCSK9 were sequenced in the blacks and whites from the Dallas Heart Study (n=3,543) who had the lowest (<5th percentile) and highest (>95th percentile) plasma levels of LDL-C. Of the 17 missense variants identified, 3 (R46L, L253F, and A443T) were significantly and reproducibly associated with lower plasma levels of LDL-C (reductions ranging from 3.5% to 30%). None of the low–LDL-C variants were associated with increased hepatic triglyceride content, as measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This finding is most consistent with the reduction in LDL-C being caused primarily by accelerating LDL clearance, rather than by reduced lipoprotein production. Association studies with 93 noncoding single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at the PCSK9 locus identified 3 SNPs associated with modest differences in plasma LDL-C levels. Thus, a spectrum of sequence variations ranging in frequency (from 0.2% to 34%) and magnitude of effect (from a 3% increase to a 49% decrease) contribute to interindividual differences in LDL-C levels. These findings reveal that PCSK9 activity is a major determinant of plasma levels of LDL-C in humans and make it an attractive therapeutic target for LDL-C lowering. Elevated levels of plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) are a major risk factor for the development and progression of atherosclerosis, which can result in coronary artery disease and stroke. Plasma levels of LDL-C vary over a threefold range in the population, and both family and twin studies have consistently shown that ∼50% of the variation is genetic in etiology (Rao et al. Rao et al., 1982Rao DC Laskarzewski PM Morrison JA Khoury P Kelly K Wette R Russell J Glueck CJ The Cincinnati Lipid Research Clinic family study: cultural and biological determinants of lipids and lipoprotein concentrations.Am J Hum Genet. 1982; 34: 888-903PubMed Google Scholar; Heller et al. Heller et al., 1993Heller DA de Faire U Pedersen NL Dahlen G McClearn GE Genetic and environmental influences on serum lipid levels in twins.N Engl J Med. 1993; 328: 1150-1156Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar). Although multiple genetic defects have been identified that cause rare Mendelian forms of severe hypercholesterolemia or hypocholesterolemia, the sequence variations in the genome accounting for most of the variation in plasma cholesterol levels in the general population have not been determined. LDLs are formed in the circulation as a metabolic product of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and are cleared from the blood by LDL receptor (LDLR)–mediated endocytosis in the liver. Disruption of the LDLR pathway is associated with severe hypercholesterolemia. Inactivating mutations in LDLR (MIM 606945) or in the LDLR-binding region of apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) cause severe autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia (MIM 144010) (Innerarity et al. Innerarity et al., 1990Innerarity TL Mahley RW Weisgraber KH Bersot TP Krauss RM Vega GL Grundy SM Friedl W Davignon J McCarthy BJ Familial defective apolipoprotein B-100: a mutation of apolipoprotein B that causes hypercholesterolemia.J Lipid Res. 1990; 31: 1337-1349Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar; Goldstein et al. Goldstein et al., 2001Goldstein J Hobbs H Brown M Familial hypercholesterolemia.in: Scriver C Beaudet A Sly W Valle D The metabolic and molecular bases of inherited disease. Vol II. McGraw Hill, New York2001: 2863-2913Google Scholar), and mutations in ARH, an adaptor protein required for LDLR endocytosis, cause autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia (MIM 603813) (Garcia et al. Garcia et al., 2001Garcia CK Wilund K Arca M Zuliani G Fellin R Maioli M Calandra S Bertolini S Cossu F Grishin N Barnes R Cohen JC Hobbs HH Autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia caused by mutations in a putative LDL receptor adaptor protein.Science. 2001; 292: 1394-1398Crossref PubMed Scopus (440) Google Scholar). No common sequence variations in the genes defective in Mendelian forms of hypercholesterolemia (or hypocholesterolemia) have been convincingly and reproducibly shown to contribute significantly to interindividual differences in plasma levels of cholesterol in the general population. Recently, selected missense mutations in PCSK9 were found to cause severe hypercholesterolemia (Abifadel et al. Abifadel et al., 2003Abifadel M Varret M Rabes JP Allard D Ouguerram K Devillers M Cruaud C et al.Mutations in PCSK9 cause autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia.Nat Genet. 2003; 34: 154-156Crossref PubMed Scopus (1940) Google Scholar; Leren Leren, 2004Leren TP Mutations in the PCSK9 gene in Norwegian subjects with autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia.Clin Genet. 2004; 65: 419-422Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar; Timms et al. Timms et al., 2004Timms KM Wagner S Samuels ME Forbey K Goldfine H Jammulapati S Skolnick MH Hopkins PN Hunt SC Shattuck DM A mutation in PCSK9 causing autosomal-dominant hypercholesterolemia in a Utah pedigree.Hum Genet. 2004; 114: 349-353Crossref PubMed Scopus (253) Google Scholar). PCSK9 encodes a 692-aa glycoprotein that is a member of the subtilisin/kexin type 9 serine protease subfamily of proprotein convertases. PCSK9 contains a signal sequence and prodomain at its N-terminus, followed by a catalytic domain and cysteine-rich carboxy-terminal domain (fig. 1) (Naureckiene et al. Naureckiene et al., 2003Naureckiene S Ma L Sreekumar K Purandare U Lo CF Huang Y Chiang LW Grenier JM Ozenberger BA Jacobsen JS Kennedy JD DiStefano PS Wood A Bingham B Functional characterization of Narc 1, a novel proteinase related to proteinase K.Arch Biochem Biophys. 2003; 420: 55-67Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar; Seidah et al. Seidah et al., 2003Seidah NG Benjannet S Wickham L Marcinkiewicz J Jasmin SB Stifani S Basak A Prat A Chretien M The secretory proprotein convertase neural apoptosis-regulated convertase 1 (NARC-1): liver regeneration and neuronal differentiation.PNAS. 2003; 100: 928-933Crossref PubMed Scopus (819) Google Scholar; Benjannet et al. Benjannet et al., 2004Benjannet S Rhainds D Essalmani R Mayne J Wickham L Jin W Asselin MC Hamelin J Varret M Allard D Trillard M Abifadel M Tebon A Attie AD Rader DJ Boileau C Brissette L Chretien M Prat A Seidah NG NARC-1/PCSK9 and its natural mutants: zymogen cleavage and effects on the LDLR and LDL-cholesterol.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 48865-48875Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar). PCSK9 undergoes autocatalytic cleavage in the endoplasmic reticulum, releasing the aminoterminal prodomain (Naureckiene et al. Naureckiene et al., 2003Naureckiene S Ma L Sreekumar K Purandare U Lo CF Huang Y Chiang LW Grenier JM Ozenberger BA Jacobsen JS Kennedy JD DiStefano PS Wood A Bingham B Functional characterization of Narc 1, a novel proteinase related to proteinase K.Arch Biochem Biophys. 2003; 420: 55-67Crossref PubMed Scopus (126) Google Scholar; Seidah et al. Seidah et al., 2003Seidah NG Benjannet S Wickham L Marcinkiewicz J Jasmin SB Stifani S Basak A Prat A Chretien M The secretory proprotein convertase neural apoptosis-regulated convertase 1 (NARC-1): liver regeneration and neuronal differentiation.PNAS. 2003; 100: 928-933Crossref PubMed Scopus (819) Google Scholar; Benjannet et al. Benjannet et al., 2004Benjannet S Rhainds D Essalmani R Mayne J Wickham L Jin W Asselin MC Hamelin J Varret M Allard D Trillard M Abifadel M Tebon A Attie AD Rader DJ Boileau C Brissette L Chretien M Prat A Seidah NG NARC-1/PCSK9 and its natural mutants: zymogen cleavage and effects on the LDLR and LDL-cholesterol.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 48865-48875Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar). The prodomain remains associated with the processed form of PCSK9 as it transits through the secretory pathway (Seidah et al. Seidah et al., 2003Seidah NG Benjannet S Wickham L Marcinkiewicz J Jasmin SB Stifani S Basak A Prat A Chretien M The secretory proprotein convertase neural apoptosis-regulated convertase 1 (NARC-1): liver regeneration and neuronal differentiation.PNAS. 2003; 100: 928-933Crossref PubMed Scopus (819) Google Scholar). PCSK9 is expressed most abundantly in the liver, kidney, and small intestine (Seidah et al. Seidah et al., 2003Seidah NG Benjannet S Wickham L Marcinkiewicz J Jasmin SB Stifani S Basak A Prat A Chretien M The secretory proprotein convertase neural apoptosis-regulated convertase 1 (NARC-1): liver regeneration and neuronal differentiation.PNAS. 2003; 100: 928-933Crossref PubMed Scopus (819) Google Scholar). Hepatic levels of PCSK9 mRNA change inversely with cholesterol feeding in mice (Maxwell et al. Maxwell et al., 2003Maxwell KN Soccio RE Duncan EM Sehayek E Breslow JL Novel putative SREBP and LXR target genes identified by microarray analysis in liver of cholesterol-fed mice.J Lipid Res. 2003; 44: 2109-2119Crossref PubMed Scopus (289) Google Scholar) and are elevated in mice overexpressing constitutively active forms of the cholesterol regulatory transcription factors SREBP-1a and SREBP-2 (Horton et al. Horton et al., 2003Horton JD Shah NA Warrington JA Anderson NN Park SW Brown MS Goldstein JL Combined analysis of oligonucleotide microarray data from transgenic and knockout mice identifies direct SREBP target genes.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100: 12027-12032Crossref PubMed Scopus (996) Google Scholar). The physiological substrate(s) of PCSK9 is not known, but high-level expression of recombinant PCSK9 in the livers of mice results in a pronounced reduction in LDLR protein level and hypercholesterolemia without any associated changes in LDLR mRNA level (Benjannet et al. Benjannet et al., 2004Benjannet S Rhainds D Essalmani R Mayne J Wickham L Jin W Asselin MC Hamelin J Varret M Allard D Trillard M Abifadel M Tebon A Attie AD Rader DJ Boileau C Brissette L Chretien M Prat A Seidah NG NARC-1/PCSK9 and its natural mutants: zymogen cleavage and effects on the LDLR and LDL-cholesterol.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 48865-48875Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar; Maxwell and Breslow Maxwell and Breslow, 2004Maxwell KN Breslow JL Adenoviral-mediated expression of Pcsk9 in mice results in a low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout phenotype.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004; 101: 7100-7105Crossref PubMed Scopus (453) Google Scholar; Park et al. Park et al., 2004Park SW Moon YA Horton JD Post-transcriptional regulation of LDL receptor protein by proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9a (PCSK9) in mouse liver.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 50630-50638Crossref PubMed Scopus (402) Google Scholar). These data suggest that missense mutations in PCSK9 cause hypercholesterolemia by a gain-of-function mechanism and promote the degradation of LDLRs in hepatocytes (Benjannet et al. Benjannet et al., 2004Benjannet S Rhainds D Essalmani R Mayne J Wickham L Jin W Asselin MC Hamelin J Varret M Allard D Trillard M Abifadel M Tebon A Attie AD Rader DJ Boileau C Brissette L Chretien M Prat A Seidah NG NARC-1/PCSK9 and its natural mutants: zymogen cleavage and effects on the LDLR and LDL-cholesterol.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 48865-48875Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar; Maxwell and Breslow Maxwell and Breslow, 2004Maxwell KN Breslow JL Adenoviral-mediated expression of Pcsk9 in mice results in a low-density lipoprotein receptor knockout phenotype.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2004; 101: 7100-7105Crossref PubMed Scopus (453) Google Scholar; Park et al. Park et al., 2004Park SW Moon YA Horton JD Post-transcriptional regulation of LDL receptor protein by proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9a (PCSK9) in mouse liver.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 50630-50638Crossref PubMed Scopus (402) Google Scholar). An alternative hypothesis is that PCSK9 affects plasma LDL-C levels by altering the rate of secretion of apoB-100 in an LDLR-independent manner (Benjannet et al. Benjannet et al., 2004Benjannet S Rhainds D Essalmani R Mayne J Wickham L Jin W Asselin MC Hamelin J Varret M Allard D Trillard M Abifadel M Tebon A Attie AD Rader DJ Boileau C Brissette L Chretien M Prat A Seidah NG NARC-1/PCSK9 and its natural mutants: zymogen cleavage and effects on the LDLR and LDL-cholesterol.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 48865-48875Crossref PubMed Scopus (455) Google Scholar; Ouguerram et al. Ouguerram et al., 2004Ouguerram K Chetiveaux M Zair Y Costet P Abifadel M Varret M Boileau C Magot T Krempf M Apolipoprotein B100 metabolism in autosomal-dominant hypercholesterolemia related to mutations in PCSK9.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004; 24: 1448-1453Crossref PubMed Scopus (153) Google Scholar; Sun et al. Sun et al., 2005Sun XM Eden ER Tosi I Neuwirth CK Wile D Naoumova RP Soutar AK Evidence for effect of mutant PCSK9 on apolipoprotein B secretion as the cause of unusually severe dominant hypercholesterolaemia.Hum Mol Genet. 2005; 14: 1161-1169Crossref PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar). Metabolic studies measuring VLDL–apoB-100 synthesis in two individuals with a missense mutation in PCSK9 found a significant increase in VLDL production (Ouguerram et al. Ouguerram et al., 2004Ouguerram K Chetiveaux M Zair Y Costet P Abifadel M Varret M Boileau C Magot T Krempf M Apolipoprotein B100 metabolism in autosomal-dominant hypercholesterolemia related to mutations in PCSK9.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004; 24: 1448-1453Crossref PubMed Scopus (153) Google Scholar), whereas conflicting results have been obtained with regard to the effect of PCSK9 expression on apoB-100 synthesis in the livers of mice or in cultured hepatocytes isolated from mice expressing recombinant PCSK9 (Park et al. Park et al., 2004Park SW Moon YA Horton JD Post-transcriptional regulation of LDL receptor protein by proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9a (PCSK9) in mouse liver.J Biol Chem. 2004; 279: 50630-50638Crossref PubMed Scopus (402) Google Scholar; Lalanne et al. Lalanne et al., 2005Lalanne F Lambert G Amar MJ Chetiveaux M Zair Y Jarnoux AL Ouguerram K Friburg J Seidah NG Brewer Jr, HB Krempf M Costet P Wild-type PCSK9 inhibits LDL clearance but does not affect apoB-containing lipoprotein production in mouse and cultured cells.J Lipid Res. 2005; 46: 1312-1319Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar). Additional studies will be required to determine whether increased synthesis of apoB-containing lipoproteins by the liver contributes to the hypercholesterolemia associated with missense mutations in PCSK9. Mutations in PCSK9 result not only in severe hypercholesterolemia but also in hypocholesterolemia (Cohen et al. Cohen et al., 2005Cohen J Pertsemlidis A Kotowski IK Graham R Garcia CK Hobbs HH Low LDL cholesterol in individuals of African descent resulting from frequent nonsense mutations in PCSK9.Nat Genet. 2005; 37: 161-165Crossref PubMed Scopus (950) Google Scholar). Two different nonsense mutations in PCSK9 are associated with a 40% reduction in mean plasma levels of LDL-C (Cohen et al. Cohen et al., 2005Cohen J Pertsemlidis A Kotowski IK Graham R Garcia CK Hobbs HH Low LDL cholesterol in individuals of African descent resulting from frequent nonsense mutations in PCSK9.Nat Genet. 2005; 37: 161-165Crossref PubMed Scopus (950) Google Scholar), presumably because of a loss of PCSK9 function resulting in elevated hepatic LDLR activity. Mice lacking PCSK9 have markedly increased hepatic LDLR levels (Rashid et al. Rashid et al., 2005Rashid S Curtis DE Garuti R Anderson NN Bashmakov Y Ho YK Hammer RE Moon YA Horton JD Decreased plasma cholesterol and hypersensitivity to statins in mice lacking Pcsk9.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2005; 102: 5374-5379Crossref PubMed Scopus (520) Google Scholar). Thus, selected missense mutations in PCSK9 produce hypercholesterolemia due to a gain of function, resulting in reduced hepatic levels of LDLR, whereas inactivating mutations in the same gene cause hypocholesterolemia due to a loss of function, resulting in an increased level of LDLR in the liver. Since mutations in PCSK9 can cause severe dominant hypercholesterolemia (Abifadel et al. Abifadel et al., 2003Abifadel M Varret M Rabes JP Allard D Ouguerram K Devillers M Cruaud C et al.Mutations in PCSK9 cause autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia.Nat Genet. 2003; 34: 154-156Crossref PubMed Scopus (1940) Google Scholar; Leren Leren, 2004Leren TP Mutations in the PCSK9 gene in Norwegian subjects with autosomal dominant hypercholesterolemia.Clin Genet. 2004; 65: 419-422Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar; Timms et al. Timms et al., 2004Timms KM Wagner S Samuels ME Forbey K Goldfine H Jammulapati S Skolnick MH Hopkins PN Hunt SC Shattuck DM A mutation in PCSK9 causing autosomal-dominant hypercholesterolemia in a Utah pedigree.Hum Genet. 2004; 114: 349-353Crossref PubMed Scopus (253) Google Scholar) as well as significantly reduced plasma levels of LDL-C (Cohen et al. Cohen et al., 2005Cohen J Pertsemlidis A Kotowski IK Graham R Garcia CK Hobbs HH Low LDL cholesterol in individuals of African descent resulting from frequent nonsense mutations in PCSK9.Nat Genet. 2005; 37: 161-165Crossref PubMed Scopus (950) Google Scholar), other investigators have queried whether other more common sequence variations in PCSK9 contribute to variations in plasma levels of LDL-C. Shioji et al. (Shioji et al., 2004Shioji K Mannami T Kokubo Y Inamoto N Takagi S Goto Y Nonogi H Iwai N Genetic variants in PCSK9 affect the cholesterol level in Japanese.J Hum Genet. 2004; 49: 109-114Crossref PubMed Scopus (75) Google Scholar) identified two SNPs, and Chen et al. (Chen et al., 2005Chen SN Ballantyne CM Gotto Jr, AM Tan Y Willerson JT Marian AJ A common PCSK9 haplotype, encompassing the E670G coding single nucleotide polymorphism, is a novel genetic marker for plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and severity of coronary atherosclerosis.J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 45: 1611-1619Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar) identified a haplotype associated with differences in plasma LDL-C level, but no systematic examination of the relationship between sequence variations in PCSK9 and plasma levels of LDL-C has been reported. The aim of the present study was to characterize the spectrum of sequence variations in PCSK9 and to investigate the contributions of these variations to differences in plasma levels of LDL-C in the general population. In addition, we investigated whether functional sequence variations in PCSK9 associated with low plasma levels of LDL-C are also associated with increased hepatic triglyceride content (HTGC), as would be expected if defects in PCSK9 cause reduced production of apoB-containing lipoproteins by the liver. Informed consent, blood samples, and clinical evaluations were obtained for all participating subjects by institutional review board–approved protocols. The study population included all participants in the Dallas Heart Study (DHS) from whom fasting venous blood samples were obtained (n=3,543). The DHS sample is a multiethnic, probability-based sample of Dallas County, weighted to include 50% blacks, in which ethnicity was self-assigned in accordance with United States census categories (Victor et al. Victor et al., 2004Victor RG Haley RW Willett DL Peshock RM Vaeth PC Leonard D Basit M Cooper RS Iannacchione VG Visscher WA Staab JM Hobbs HH The Dallas Heart Study: a population-based probability sample for the multidisciplinary study of ethnic differences in cardiovascular health.Am J Cardiol. 2004; 93: 1473-1480Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (407) Google Scholar). In the present study, “blacks” and “whites” refer to individuals who self-identified as non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white, respectively. The blood samples were maintained at 4°C until the plasma and serum were separated, aliquoted, and stored at −80°C. Genomic DNA was isolated from the leukocytes with Pure Gene (Gentra Systems). Significant associations were replicated in a sample of blacks from Maywood, Cook County, Illinois (Cohen et al. Cohen et al., 2005Cohen J Pertsemlidis A Kotowski IK Graham R Garcia CK Hobbs HH Low LDL cholesterol in individuals of African descent resulting from frequent nonsense mutations in PCSK9.Nat Genet. 2005; 37: 161-165Crossref PubMed Scopus (950) Google Scholar). Plasma LDL-C concentrations were determined using commercial enzymatic reagents. HTGC was determined by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy as described elsewhere (Browning et al. Browning et al., 2004Browning JD Szczepaniak LS Dobbins R Nuremberg P Horton JD Cohen JC Grundy SM Hobbs HH Prevalence of hepatic steatosis in an urban population in the United States: impact of ethnicity.Hepatology. 2004; 40: 1387-1395Crossref PubMed Scopus (2733) Google Scholar; Szczepaniak et al. Szczepaniak et al., 2004Szczepaniak LS Nurenberg P Leonard D Browning JD Reingold JS Grundy S Hobbs HH Dobbins RL Magnetic resonance spectroscopy to measure hepatic triglyceride content: prevalence of hepatic steatosis in the general population.Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004; 288: E462-E468Crossref PubMed Scopus (1134) Google Scholar). Hepatic steatosis was defined as HTGC >5.5% (Browning et al. Browning et al., 2004Browning JD Szczepaniak LS Dobbins R Nuremberg P Horton JD Cohen JC Grundy SM Hobbs HH Prevalence of hepatic steatosis in an urban population in the United States: impact of ethnicity.Hepatology. 2004; 40: 1387-1395Crossref PubMed Scopus (2733) Google Scholar). Within each ethnic- and sex-specific group, plasma LDL-C levels were adjusted for the effects of age by linear regression and for the effects of lipid-lowering medications by the assumption of a 25% decrease in plasma LDL-C level. For sequencing, we selected the 5% of individuals with the highest and lowest adjusted plasma LDL-C levels in each ethnic- and sex-specific group whose fasting plasma levels of triglycerides were <250 mg/dl. The 5th and 95th percentiles, respectively, of the adjusted plasma LDL-C levels were 49 mg/dl and 177 mg/dl for black men (n=770), 56 mg/dl and 172 mg/dl for black women (n=1,051), 61 mg/dl and 171 mg/dl for white men (n=499), and 57 mg/dl and 168 mg/dl for white women (n=544). The exons and flanking intronic sequences of PCSK9 were amplified by PCR and treated with recombinant exonuclease I and shrimp alkaline phosphatase (Exo-Sap [USB]). Both strands of each product were sequenced on an ABI 3730 automated sequencer with BigDye terminator cycle sequencing reagents (Applied Biosystems). The sequences of the oligonucleotides used for sequencing are available on request. Specific 5′-nucleotidase assays for all nonsynonymous sequence variations identified by sequencing in the present study were developed using the TaqMan system (Applied Biosystems). The assays were performed on an HT7900 Real-Time PCR system with probes and reagents purchased from Applied Biosystems. All other SNPs were genotyped by PCR-based amplification of genomic DNA, followed by hybridization to high-density oligonucleotide arrays (Perlegen Sciences). We used the statistical software package R for all statistical analyses (The R Development Core Team The R Development Core Team, 2004The R Development Core Team R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria2004Google Scholar; The R Project for Statistical Computing). The observed genotype frequencies were tested for deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium by using χ2 tests. Tests for association were performed in the DHS sample and were then validated by replication in the Cook County sample. Individuals taking lipid-lowering drugs were excluded from all tests for association with plasma LDL-C levels. Lipoprotein levels were adjusted for age and sex by linear regression and were tested for association with each sequence variant by using one-way analysis of variance, to compare the mean values of the three genotype groups. Genotypes represented by fewer than six individuals were omitted from the analysis. Blacks and whites in the DHS sample were analyzed separately. Sequence variants found to be significantly associated with plasma LDL-C levels at a nominal significance threshold of 0.05 in the DHS blacks were tested for association in the Cook County sample by using unpaired t tests. Since the direction of effect was already established in the DHS sample, associations in the Cook County sample were examined using one-sided tests. Sequence variants that achieved a nominal significance threshold of 0.05 in the DHS and Cook County samples and that showed the same direction of effect in the two samples were considered to be statistically significant. We estimated haplotype blocks in each ethnic group, using the expectation-maximization algorithm (as implemented in Haploview [Barrett et al. Barrett et al., 2005Barrett JC Fry B Maller J Daly MJ Haploview: analysis and visualization of LD and haplotype maps.Bioinformatics. 2005; 21: 263-265Crossref PubMed Scopus (11431) Google Scholar]) and the Gabriel et al. (Gabriel et al., 2002Gabriel SB Schaffner SF Nguyen H Moore JM Roy J Blumenstiel B Higgins J DeFelice M Lochner A Faggart M Liu-Cordero SN Rotimi C Adeyemo A Cooper R Ward R Lander ES Daly MJ Altshuler D The structure of haplotype blocks in the human genome.Science. 2002; 296: 2225-2229Crossref PubMed Scopus (4532) Google Scholar) definition of haplotype blocks, and we calculated the association of each haplotype block with LDL-C values by using the haplo.stats package (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research). The results are presented as P values based on the global statistic for the association of haplotype blocks with LDL-C level. Testing was performed at the nominal significance threshold of 0.05. To identify sequence variations in PCSK9 associated with hyper- or hypocholesterolemia in the general population, we sequenced the exons and flanking intronic regions of PCSK9 in four groups of individuals (black men, black women, white men, and white women) from the DHS sample who had either very low (<5th percentile) or very high (>95th percentile) plasma levels of LDL-C. The DHS sample is a multiethnic (52% non-Hispanic black, 29% non-Hispanic white, 17% Hispanic, and 2% other ethnicities) probability-based population sample of Dallas County for which ethnicity was self-assigned (Victor et al. Victor et al., 2004Victor RG Haley RW Willett DL Peshock RM Vaeth PC Leonard D Basit M Cooper RS Iannacchione VG Visscher WA Staab JM Hobbs HH The Dallas Heart Study: a population-based probability sample for the multidisciplinary study of ethnic differences in cardiovascular health.Am J Cardiol. 2004; 93: 1473-1480Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (407) Google Scholar). The low- and high-LDL groups each included 39 (of 770) black men, 50 (of 1,051) black women, 25 (of 499) white men, and 27 (of 544) white women. A total of 6.1% of the sample population were taking cholesterol-lowering agents (6.0% of blacks and 7.6% of whites). Since the mean reduction in plasma LDL-C level in individuals taking a statin is ∼25% (Sacks and Katan Sacks and Katan, 2002Sacks FM Katan M Randomized clinical trials on the effects of dietary fat and carbohydrate on plasma lipoproteins and cardiovascular disease.Am J Med. 2002; 113: 13S-24SAbstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), we estimated the untreated plasma LDL-C level of those individuals taking a cholesterol-lowering agent by adding 33% to their levels measured while taking treatment. A total of 35 subjects who were taking lipid-lowering agents were included among the 141 individuals in the high-LDL group (26 of 89 blacks and 9 of 52 whites). DNA sequencing revealed 19 nonsynonymous sequence variations in PCSK9, including 17 missense mutations and 2 nonsense mutations (fig. 1). Six mutations (four missense mutations and two nonsense) were identified in only the low-LDL subjects, and six were