Article16 May 2014Open Access Source Data Nuclear ARRB1 induces pseudohypoxia and cellular metabolism reprogramming in prostate cancer Vincent Zecchini Corresponding Author Vincent Zecchini Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Basetti Madhu Basetti Madhu Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Roslin Russell Roslin Russell Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Nelma Pértega-Gomes Nelma Pértega-Gomes Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Search for more papers by this author Anne Warren Anne Warren Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Edoardo Gaude Edoardo Gaude Medical Research Council Cancer Cell Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joana Borlido Joana Borlido Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Rory Stark Rory Stark Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Heather Ireland-Zecchini Heather Ireland-Zecchini Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Roheet Rao Roheet Rao Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Helen Scott Helen Scott Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joan Boren Joan Boren Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Charlie Massie Charlie Massie Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Mohammad Asim Mohammad Asim Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Kevin Brindle Kevin Brindle Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author John Griffiths John Griffiths Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Christian Frezza Christian Frezza Medical Research Council Cancer Cell Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author David E Neal David E Neal Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Ian G Mills Ian G Mills Prostate Cancer Research Group, Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway (NCMM), Nordic EMBL Partnership, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Department of Cancer Prevention and Urology, Institute of Cancer Research and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Search for more papers by this author Vincent Zecchini Corresponding Author Vincent Zecchini Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Basetti Madhu Basetti Madhu Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Roslin Russell Roslin Russell Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Nelma Pértega-Gomes Nelma Pértega-Gomes Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal Search for more papers by this author Anne Warren Anne Warren Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Edoardo Gaude Edoardo Gaude Medical Research Council Cancer Cell Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joana Borlido Joana Borlido Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Rory Stark Rory Stark Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Heather Ireland-Zecchini Heather Ireland-Zecchini Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Roheet Rao Roheet Rao Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Helen Scott Helen Scott Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joan Boren Joan Boren Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Charlie Massie Charlie Massie Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Mohammad Asim Mohammad Asim Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Kevin Brindle Kevin Brindle Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author John Griffiths John Griffiths Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Christian Frezza Christian Frezza Medical Research Council Cancer Cell Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author David E Neal David E Neal Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Ian G Mills Ian G Mills Prostate Cancer Research Group, Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway (NCMM), Nordic EMBL Partnership, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Department of Cancer Prevention and Urology, Institute of Cancer Research and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway Search for more papers by this author Author Information Vincent Zecchini 1, Basetti Madhu1, Roslin Russell1, Nelma Pértega-Gomes2, Anne Warren3, Edoardo Gaude4, Joana Borlido1,7, Rory Stark1, Heather Ireland-Zecchini1, Roheet Rao1, Helen Scott1, Joan Boren1, Charlie Massie1, Mohammad Asim1, Kevin Brindle1, John Griffiths1, Christian Frezza4, David E Neal1,‡ and Ian G Mills5,6,‡ 1Department of CRUK, CRUK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK 2Life and Health Sciences Research Institute, School of Health Sciences, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal 3Department of Pathology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK 4Medical Research Council Cancer Cell Unit, Hutchison/MRC Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK 5Prostate Cancer Research Group, Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway (NCMM), Nordic EMBL Partnership, University of Oslo and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway 6Department of Cancer Prevention and Urology, Institute of Cancer Research and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway 7Present address: Biochemistry and Biophysics Department, Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA ‡These authors contributed equally to the study *Corresponding author. Tel: +44 1223 730606; Fax: +44 1223 763241; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2014)33:1365-1382https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.201386874 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Abstract Tumour cells sustain their high proliferation rate through metabolic reprogramming, whereby cellular metabolism shifts from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis, even under normal oxygen levels. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1A (HIF1A) is a major regulator of this process, but its activation under normoxic conditions, termed pseudohypoxia, is not well documented. Here, using an integrative approach combining the first genome-wide mapping of chromatin binding for an endocytic adaptor, ARRB1, both in vitro and in vivo with gene expression profiling, we demonstrate that nuclear ARRB1 contributes to this metabolic shift in prostate cancer cells via regulation of HIF1A transcriptional activity under normoxic conditions through regulation of succinate dehydrogenase A (SDHA) and fumarate hydratase (FH) expression. ARRB1-induced pseudohypoxia may facilitate adaptation of cancer cells to growth in the harsh conditions that are frequently encountered within solid tumours. Our study is the first example of an endocytic adaptor protein regulating metabolic pathways. It implicates ARRB1 as a potential tumour promoter in prostate cancer and highlights the importance of metabolic alterations in prostate cancer. Synopsis Global chromatin occupancy- and gene expression data, together with 'pseudohypoxic' regulation of HIF1alpha stability establish a predominantly metabolic function of nuclear ARRB1 in prostate cancer. Unbiased, genome-wide occupancy map of nuclear ARRB1 Integrated expression data that highlight ARRB1-regulated gene networks Discovery of ARRB1 as novel metabolic and cell cycle control regulator Evidence for pseudohypoxic stabilisation of HIFA by ARRB1 Introduction Beta-arrestin1 (ARRB1) is a ubiquitously expressed adaptor protein with a wide range of cellular and molecular functions (Lefkowitz & Shenoy, 2005). Recently, it has been shown to contribute to a number of diseases, including cancer (Dasgupta et al, 2006, 2011; Rosano et al, 2009; Liu et al, 2011; Lundgren et al, 2011). About a decade ago, a landmark study brought to light a novel nuclear role for ARRB1 in the regulation of gene transcription (Kang et al, 2005). Since then, other studies have confirmed this nuclear function and described its contribution to tumour growth, invasion and metastasis in lung and breast carcinoma cell lines (Dasgupta et al, 2011; Shenoy et al, 2004). One such study showed ARRB1 to co-localise and physically interact with hypoxia-inducible factor 1A (HIF1A) in the nucleus of breast cancer cells to potentiate HIF1-dependent transcription, thereby mediating metastatic growth of breast cancer cells (Shenoy et al, 2004). Under normoxic conditions, HIF1A is hydroxylated at specific proline residues by prolyl hydroxylases (PHDs), tagging it for ubiquitination and subsequent degradation by the proteasome pathway (Maxwell et al, 1999). Hypoxia inhibits prolyl hydroxylation resulting in stabilisation of HIF1A upon which it can translocate into the nucleus and heterodimerise with HIF1B to form a functional transcription factor (TF) that binds to specific promoter regions to activate the transcription of its target genes (Semenza, 2007b). Hypoxic stabilisation of HIF1A induces a switch in cellular metabolism via transcriptional activation of a plethora of metabolic genes that results in increased glycolysis and reduced mitochondrial function (Semenza, 2007c, 2010). This metabolic reprogramming, termed the Warburg effect, allows cancer cells to meet the increase in biomass production that is required to sustain their rapid proliferation. Based on the report that ARRB1 interacts with and regulates HIF1A activity in breast cancer cells and given the important role of HIF1A on metabolism and the critical role played by HIF1A in the progression of prostate cancer (Park et al, 2012), we have carried out a detailed study to determine the role of ARRB1 in prostate cancer cells using genomics and metabolomics. Herein, we report the first cistrome and transcriptome data for an endocytic adaptor. We identify a nuclear interaction between ARRB1 and HIF1A in prostate cancer cells and demonstrate that ARRB1 is recruited to promoter regions of metabolic genes in a HIF1A-dependent manner where it contributes to metabolic genes expression as a co-regulator of HIF1A transcriptional activity. We go on to show that ARRB1 acts as a modulator of cellular metabolism that facilitates glucose uptake and glycolysis and that, through modulation of TCA cycle metabolites, it induces HIF1A stabilisation under normoxic conditions, a process named pseudohypoxia. Our study implicates ARRB1 as a regulator of metabolism in prostate cancer cells. Results ARRB1 is upregulated and nuclear in prostate cancer The ARRB1 gene maps to the chromosome locus 11q13, which is often amplified in human cancers (Schwab, 1998; Kenny et al, 1999; Buchanan et al, 2006) (Supplementary Fig S1A). This region shows regional gain or amplification in 15% of prostate cancers (El Gedaily et al, 2001), and recent studies of 11q13 revealed multiple independent loci associated with risk of prostate cancer (Zheng et al, 2009; Chung et al, 2011). In addition, we found ARRB1 to be in the top 1% overexpressed genes in prostate carcinoma compared to normal tissue in a recent clinical gene expression study (Wallace et al, 2008) (Supplementary Fig S1B and C). Despite this, there have been no studies on the involvement of ARRB1 in prostate cancer. Using two independent tissue microarrays (TMAs) of human prostate cancer, we examined the levels of ARRB1 protein immunohistochemically in non-neoplastic and cancer tissue (Fig 1A and Supplementary Fig S1D and E). Although cytoplasmic staining was present both in non-neoplastic and tumour tissue, it showed stronger overall intensity in the tumour tissue in both TMAs (Fig 1B and Supplementary Fig S1F). Importantly, the additional presence of nuclear staining was significantly higher in tumour tissue (Fig 1C), and strong nuclear ARRB1 was seen in high-grade areas of the tumours (Fig 1A and Supplementary Fig S1E). In addition, increased levels of nuclear ARRB1 correlated with Gleason score, stage and biochemical recurrence, suggesting an association with more aggressive disease (Fig 1D and E). Consistent with previous reports of a role in invasion and metastasis (Buchanan et al, 2006; Shenoy et al, 2012), ARRB1 was also present in secondary bone metastases (Fig 1A). Figure 1. Nuclear ARRB1 is increased in prostate cancer Representative expression pattern of ARRB1 in non-neoplastic and malignant prostate cancer tissues. Non-neoplastic tissue shows weak nuclear and moderate cytoplasmic staining in luminal and basal cells. Staining is also present in stromal cells (s). Moderate to intense cytoplasmic and intense nuclear staining is noted in Gleason 4 (G4) areas of the tumour. Intense staining is noted in scattered bone metastatic prostate cancer cells. Quantification of ARRB1 staining in non-neoplastic and malignant prostate tissue shown in (A) (Porto TMA, see Supplementary information for details). NN=non-neoplastic, TT=tumour tissue. P < 0.001 for total positive ARRB1 cases in TT versus NN. Nuclear (solely nuclear + cytoplasmic and nuclear) or solely cytoplasmic ARRB1 staining in non-neoplastic and tumour tissue. P < 0.001 for positive nuclear ARRB1 in TT versus NN. Assessment of association between ARRB1 expressions (total expression versus only cytoplasmic versus nuclear) in prostate cancer samples and clinicopathological data. The comparisons were examined for statistical significance using Pearson's chi-square (χ2) test, P < 0.05 being the threshold for significance. Distribution of nuclear ARRB1 in low (< 7) and high (≥ 7) grade tumours. Download figure Download PowerPoint ARRB1 expression levels correlate with the neoplastic phenotype of prostate cancer cells In a panel of prostate cancer cell lines, we found that the faster growing, more aggressive and highly tumourigenic and metastatic C4-2s and C4-2bs, and to a lesser extend PC3s and DU145s, display higher nuclear levels of ARRB1 compared to LNCaPs and VCaPs (Fig 2A and Supplementary Fig S2A). We used C4-2 cells to generate cell lines stably expressing AcGFP-tagged wild-type (wtARRB1) or nuclear (nucARRB1) ARRB1, as well as stable ARRB1 knock-down (KD) cell lines (Supplementary Fig S2B–E). A subcellular fractionation showed that the expressed constructs localise in the expected intracellular compartments (Supplementary Fig S2F and G). NucARRB1 and wtARRB1 C4-2 cells proliferated faster than control cells, whereas ARRB1 KD decreased cell proliferation (Fig 2B–D), implying a dependency on adapter expression. As wtARRB1 localises to both cytoplasm and nucleus (Supplementary Fig S2E and F), this suggests that the nuclear fraction of ARRB1 is largely responsible for the observed effect on cellular proliferation. Figure 2. Nuclear ARRB1 levels correlate with the aggressiveness of the cell line Cytoplasmic versus nuclear levels of ARRB1 in a panel of prostate cancer cell lines. GFP control, nucARRB1 and wtARRB1 proliferation. Proliferation of ARRB1 KD C4-2 cells compared to control. Anchorage-independent growth (left) and migration/invasion (right) potential of C4-2 cells expressing GFP control or nucARRB1. Migration/invasion potential of low ARRB1 LNCaP cells expressing GFP control or nucARRB1. Data information: (B and C) N = 3, (D and E) N = 6, values are mean ± s.e.m., *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001. Source data are available online for this figure. Source Data for Figure 2A [embj201386874-SourceData-Fig2A.pdf] Download figure Download PowerPoint Previous studies have shown that ARRB1 is required for chemotaxis, suggesting that it may regulate the spread of cancer cells (Ge et al, 2004). We found that nucARRB1 expression in C4-2 cells enhanced the transformed phenotype of the cells as indicated by an increase in anchorage-independent growth as well as migratory and invasive potential, whereas ARRB1 KD cells had the opposite effect (Fig 2D and Supplementary Fig S2H). Importantly, when expressed in LNCaPs, a line with lower endogenous levels of ARRB1 than C4-2s, nucARRB1 resulted in a stronger relative increase in migratory and invasive potential (Fig 2E). Thus, expression levels of nuclear ARRB1 positively correlate with the neoplastic phenotype of the cells. Genomic landscape of ARRB1 in prostate cancer cells and human prostate tissue In order to dissect the mechanism behind the tumourigenic role of ARRB1, we generated whole-genome ChIP-seq analysis to identify ARRB1 target genes. As ARRB1 was previously shown to interact with p300 in a complex that regulates transcription (Kang et al, 2005), we also generated ChIP-seq data for p300. The C4-2 line was selected as its higher levels of nuclear ARRB1 were better suited for ChIP. We used a previously characterised ARRB antibody for ChIP (Kang et al, 2005) together with the Illumina platform for library preparation and sequencing. The MACS algorithm (Zhang et al, 2008) was used to identify peaks compared to their matched inputs. A total of 11,129 and 41,727 binding sites for ARRB1 and p300, respectively, were identified (Supplementary Fig S3A). Genomic distribution analysis using CEAS (Ji et al, 2006) revealed ARRB1 sites to be enriched at gene-proximal regions with 17.3% of binding sites located within promoters (0–3,000 bp from transcription start sites (TSS)) and 38.9% in intronic regions (Fig 3A). The majority (86.1%) of promoter-associated ARRB1 sites were situated within 1,000 bp of TSS (Fig 3A). Such a distribution suggests recruitment to cis-regulatory elements and supports a transcriptional role for ARRB1 in our system. Figure 3. Genomic landscape of endogenous ARRB1 in prostate cancer cells A. CEAS-generated genomic distribution of ARRB1, p300, H3K4me1 and H3K4me3 in C4-2s compared to the genomic frequency of the regions considered. The pie chart shows ARRB1-binding sites distribution relative to proximal promoter regions. B. Venn diagram showing the overlap (minimum 1 bp) between functional endogenous ARRB1 and p300-binding sites in C4-2 cells. C. Distribution of ARRB1-binding sites, either alone or shared with p300, relative to H3K4me1 and H3K4me3 regions in C4-2s. D, E. Distance distribution of ARRB1 and p300 peak centres relative to the nearest TSS (D) or RNAPolII site (E). F. Venn diagram showing the overlap (minimum 1 bp) between functional endogenous ARRB1 binding sites in human prostate tissue and cell lines. G. Integrated Genome Browser view of ChIP-Seq enrichment profiles of ARRB1, H3K4me3, H3K4me1 and RNAPII in parental C4-2, nucARRB1 cell lines and human prostate tissue. Download figure Download PowerPoint To refine our data and focus on functionally active regions of the genome, we generated whole-genome data sets for mono (H3K4me1)- and tri (H3K4me3)-methylated lysine 4 residue of histone H3, histone markers that are associated with actively regulated genes at enhancer and promoter regions, respectively (Barski et al, 2007; Heintzman et al, 2007, 2009; Wang et al, 2008, 2009; Hon et al, 2009; Bernstein et al, 2013). We identified 129,397 and 29,172 binding sites for H3K4me1 and H3K4me3, respectively (Fig 3A and Supplementary Fig S3A). Out of the binding sites initially identified, 7,681 ARRB1 and 39,349 p300 peaks were associated with either H3K4me1 or H3K4me3 marks. These were considered as functional loci and selected for subsequent analysis. Comparison of the ARRB1 and p300 cistromes revealed a partial overlap between ARRB1 and p300 binding sites, suggesting that they act in the same regulatory complex (Fig 3B). However, the presence of non-overlapping sites indicates that ARRB1 may also modulate transcription independently of p300. Of the functional ARRB1 loci, 82% overlapped with H3K4me3 regions compared to 18% with H3K4me1, showing a strong bias for promoter regions (Fig 3C). Shared ARRB1/p300 sites were preferentially located at proximal promoters (51.7% at H3K4me3 versus to 15.8% at H3K4me1), whereas a lower proportion of sites bound only by ARRB1 was seen at both promoters and enhancers (30.3% and 2.2% at H3K4me3 and H3K4me1, respectively) (Fig 3C). Thus, sites shared by ARRB1 and p300 have a greater affinity for promoter regions, consistent with previous reports of a ARRB1/p300 physical interaction within transcriptional complexes at promoter regions (Kang et al, 2005; Dasgupta et al, 2011). In addition, ARRB1 was found to be tightly centred on TSS and RNA PolII (RNAPII), which typically binds proximal promoter regions of actively transcribed genes, further emphasising ARRB1's affinity for proximal functional regions and suggesting a major role for this protein in gene expression regulation (Fig 3D and E). ChIP-seq on nucARRB1 cell lines confirmed these results (Supplementary Fig S3A–F), indicating that constitutive overexpression of nuclear ARRB1 does not alter its genomic landscape. Having identified the genomic landscape of ARRB1 in prostate cancer cell lines, we validated our findings in vivo by examining its binding to chromatin in human prostate tissue (Supplementary Fig S3A). A high proportion of ARRB1 sites (66.5%) were associated with the functional markers H3K4me1 or H3K4me3. Out of these, 47% overlapped with the sites identified in both parental C4-2 and nucARRB1 cell lines (Fig 3F). Comparison of the ARRB1, H3K4me1 and H3K4me3 peaks from ChIP-seq in cell lines and human prostate tissue at several representative loci using the Integrated Genome Browser (IGB) illustrates the consistency between the samples (Fig 3G). ARRB1 regulates the expression of metabolic genes To determine the effect of ARRB1 on gene expression in prostate cancer cells, we performed genome-wide expression profiling using Illumina bead arrays. WtARRB1 and nucARRB1 cell lines displayed clearly different clustering and gene expression patterns compared to control cell lines (Fig 4A and Supplementary Fig S4A), and a large fraction of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were common to both wtARRB1 and nucARRB1, suggesting that the nuclear pool of ARRB1 is responsible for many of the changes in gene expression associated with increased levels of ARRB1 (Fig 4B and Supplementary Table S1A and B). Real-time PCR validation of the gene expression profiling yielded an experimental false discovery rate of approximately 1.6% (Supplementary Fig S4B). Figure 4. Characterisation of the ARRB1 transcriptome Gene expression heatmap showing ARRB1-regulated genes in control GFP, wtARRB1 or nucARRB1 versus parental C4-2 control. Overlap between DEG in wtARRB1 and nucARRB1. GSEA-enrichment analysis for hypoxia-responsive genes between normoxic nucARRB1 DEG and DU145 prostate cancer cells incubated for 1, 2, 4, 8 and 12 h in hypoxic conditions. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) of the 854 direct ARRB1 transcriptional targets. The small Venn diagram cartoon shows the number and overlap of genes in the different categories. IPA analyses of the p300/ARRB1- or ARRB1 alone-regulated genes subgroups are also shown. Download figure Download PowerPoint Functional analysis of the nucARRB1 transcriptome using DAVID gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed an enrichment of genes involved in cellular metabolism and the cell cycle (Supplementary Fig S4C and Supplementary Table S1C). Of note, within the ARRB1-regulated genes, we identified an overlap with the HIF1 transcriptome including known HIF1A targets such as genes involved in angiogenesis (VEGFA and VEGFB), glycolysis (ALDOA, ALDOC, ENO3, PGM1, HK2), glucose transport (GLUT12), mitochondrial function (MXI1, BNIP3, BNIP3L), oxygen consumption (LONP1), lipid synthesis (PPARG) and proliferation (STC2). To confirm this in an unbiased manner, we correlated the gene expression profiling data set obtained in nucARRB1 to that of a recent study reporting the hypoxia-induced transcriptional response in DU145, a prostate cancer cell line (Starmans et al, 2012). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed a robust correlation between the two data sets as early as two hours incubation in hypoxia, confirming a hypoxic signature in our data set (Fig 4C). qPCR on selected genes in ARRB1 KD versus control or GFP versus nucARRB1, wtARRB1 and Q394L ARRB1, a previously characterised ARRB1 mutation that prevents the translocation of ARRB1 to the nucleus and keeps it solely cytoplasmic, confirmed the effect of nuclear ARRB1 on metabolic gene transcription (Scott et al, 2002; Wang et al, 2003) (Supplementary Fig S4D and E). In order to find direct transcriptional targets of ARRB1, we integrated the ChIP data and gene expression profiling obtained in nucARRB1 cells and derived a core set of 854 potential direct transcriptional target genes (Supplementary Fig S4F and G and Supplementary Table S1D). DAVID and IPA GO analyses revealed cellular metabolism and cell cycle amongst the most significant pathway networks associated with ARRB1's direct transcriptional targets (Fig 4D, Supplementary Fig S4H and I and Supplementary Table S1E and F). Importantly, targets exclusively associated with ARRB1 sites are closely related to the cell cycle (nucleosome organisation, chromatin and nucleosome assembly and disassembly, protein/DNA complex assembly), whereas the vast majority of targets associated with both ARRB1 and p300 are linked to cellular metabolism and cell cycle (Fig 4D). Functional annotation of the potential direct ARRB1 targets in human tissue also revealed metabolic processes in the most highly enriched subsets (Supplementary Table S1G), indicating that ARRB1 is likely to regulate the same cellular processes in cell lines and tissue and is closely associated with metabolic processes both in vitro and in vivo. As nuclear ARRB1 levels are increased in prostate cancer, we hypothesised that gene expression might be dysregulated in a similar way in nucARRB1 and prostate cancer tissue. Five independent clinical gene expression studies showed this to be the case for multiple ARRB1 target genes (Supplementary Fig S4J). These results revealed a conserved gene expression signature dependent of ARRB1 both in cell lines and, more importantly, in human prostate tumours. ARRB1 interacts with and regulates the transcriptional activity of HIF1A in a HIF1-dependent fashion As ARRB1 occupies the promoters and modulates the expression of HIF1A targets genes, we tested whether it contributed to the HIF1A-dependent hypoxic transcriptional response. We performed real-time quantitative PCR analysis of mRNA extracted from control and nucARRB1 or ARRB1 KD cells cultured under normoxic or hypoxic conditions (1% O2 for 2, 4 or 8 h) to assess the expression of HIF1A targets. Nuclear expression of ARRB1 combined with hypoxia had additive effects on the expression of HIF1A target genes, whereas ARRB1 KD prevented the full induction of most of the targets (Fig 5A and Supplementary Fig S5A). Figure 5. ARRB1 modulates hypoxia-induced HIF1A transcriptional activity GFP control and nucARRB1 (top) or scramble shRNA and ARRB1 shRNA (bottom) cells were incubated in hypoxia (1% O2) for 0, 2, 4 or 8 h. Heatmap showing expression levels of HIF1A metabolic target genes VEGFA, LDHA, MXI1 and BNIP3L measured by qRT-PCR. Expression of HIF1A target genes in nucARRB1 cells transiently transfected with scramble (scr) or two different HIF1A siRNAs (siRNA1 and siRNA2) and grown in hypoxia (1% O2 for 8 h) 48 h post-transfection. TF motif over-representation using DREME. The ARRB1-associated matched motifs (left) are compared to motifs in the JASPAR_CORE data