Article30 August 2007free access SUMO-targeted ubiquitin ligases in genome stability John Prudden John Prudden Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Stephanie Pebernard Stephanie Pebernard Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Grazia Raffa Grazia Raffa Dipartimento di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy Search for more papers by this author Daniela A Slavin Daniela A Slavin Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author J Jefferson P Perry J Jefferson P Perry Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidya Peetham, Amritapuri, Kerala, India Search for more papers by this author John A Tainer John A Tainer Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Life Sciences Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Clare H McGowan Clare H McGowan Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael N Boddy Corresponding Author Michael N Boddy Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author John Prudden John Prudden Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Stephanie Pebernard Stephanie Pebernard Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Grazia Raffa Grazia Raffa Dipartimento di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy Search for more papers by this author Daniela A Slavin Daniela A Slavin Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author J Jefferson P Perry J Jefferson P Perry Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidya Peetham, Amritapuri, Kerala, India Search for more papers by this author John A Tainer John A Tainer Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Life Sciences Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Clare H McGowan Clare H McGowan Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael N Boddy Corresponding Author Michael N Boddy Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Author Information John Prudden1, Stephanie Pebernard1, Grazia Raffa2, Daniela A Slavin1, J Jefferson P Perry1,3, John A Tainer1,4, Clare H McGowan1,5 and Michael N Boddy 1 1Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA 2Dipartimento di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare, Università di Roma La Sapienza, Rome, Italy 3School of Biotechnology, Amrita Vishwa Vidya Peetham, Amritapuri, Kerala, India 4Life Sciences Division, Department of Molecular Biology, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA 5Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA *Corresponding author. Department of Molecular Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA. Tel.: +1 858 784 7042; Fax: +1 858 784 2265; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2007)26:4089-4101https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7601838 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions Figures & Info We identify the SUMO-Targeted Ubiquitin Ligase (STUbL) family of proteins and propose that STUbLs selectively ubiquitinate sumoylated proteins and proteins that contain SUMO-like domains (SLDs). STUbL recruitment to sumoylated/SLD proteins is mediated by tandem SUMO interaction motifs (SIMs) within the STUbLs N-terminus. STUbL-mediated ubiquitination maintains sumoylation pathway homeostasis by promoting target protein desumoylation and/or degradation. Thus, STUbLs establish a novel mode of communication between the sumoylation and ubiquitination pathways. STUbLs are evolutionarily conserved and include: Schizosaccharomyces pombe Slx8-Rfp (founding member), Homo sapiens RNF4, Dictyostelium discoideum MIP1 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae Slx5–Slx8. Cells lacking Slx8-Rfp accumulate sumoylated proteins, display genomic instability, and are hypersensitive to genotoxic stress. These phenotypes are suppressed by deletion of the major SUMO ligase Pli1, demonstrating the specificity of STUbLs as regulators of sumoylated proteins. Notably, human RNF4 expression restores SUMO pathway homeostasis in fission yeast lacking Slx8-Rfp, underscoring the evolutionary functional conservation of STUbLs. The DNA repair factor Rad60 and its human homolog NIP45, which contain SLDs, are candidate STUbL targets. Consistently, Rad60 and Slx8-Rfp mutants have similar DNA repair defects. Introduction The post-translational modifiers SUMO and ubiquitin, together termed ubiquitin-like proteins (Ubls), modulate the activities of multiple proteins and pathways that are key to cellular survival (Ulrich, 2005; Kerscher et al, 2006). Among these key pathways, Ubls regulate DNA repair and chromosome segregation mechanisms (Tanaka et al, 1999; Gill, 2004; Nacerddine et al, 2005; Ulrich, 2005). For example, the DNA homologous recombination repair (HRR) factor RAD52 is sumoylated in both yeast and mammals (Ho et al, 2001; Sacher et al, 2006). In budding yeast, Rad52 sumoylation affects both its stability and the outcome of Rad52-dependent HRR (Sacher et al, 2006). Also, sumoylation of the budding yeast RecQ helicase, Sgs1, is proposed to contribute to the anti-recombinogenic functions of SUMO at stalled replication forks (Branzei et al, 2006). Notably, the disease related human RecQ-like helicases WRN and BLM, which act in key DNA transactions including HRR, are also sumoylated (Kawabe et al, 2000; Eladad et al, 2005). An example of ubiquitin-dependent regulation is the mono-ubiquitination of FANCD2 following genotoxic stress, which results in FANCD2 redistribution to subnuclear foci that colocalize with critical DNA repair factors (see Huang and D'Andrea, 2006). Defective FANCD2 mono-ubiquitination is observed in patients with Fanconi's anemia (see Huang and D'Andrea, 2006). Ubls also modulate chromosome structure and therefore, accessibility to proteins involved in chromosome segregation, DNA repair, and transcription. For example, sumoylation of core histones in budding yeast generates heterochromatin, possibly through recruitment of the transcriptional corepressors HDAC1 and HP1 (Shiio and Eisenman, 2003; Nathan et al, 2006). In fission yeast, sumoylation is required for heterochromatin structure and function at centromeres and telomeres (Xhemalce et al, 2004). Critical SUMO substrates include the heterochromatin protein Swi6 and the histone methyltransferase Clr4 (Shin et al, 2005). Ubls are covalently attached to their substrates in a multistep enzymatic process. Ubls are first processed (matured) by specific proteases, DUBs for ubiquitin and ULPs for SUMO, exposing a C-terminal di-glycine motif (Ulrich, 2005; Kerscher et al, 2006). The mature Ubl is then conjugated to the substrate via a cascade of E1 (activating), E2 (conjugating), and E3 (ligase) enzymes. The E3 ligase facilitates substrate specificity and isopeptide bond formation between the Ubl's C-terminal glycine and a lysine residue in the target protein (Ulrich, 2005; Kerscher et al, 2006). Many E3 ligases contain the RING finger motif or a variant called the SP-RING, which catalyze ubiquitination and sumoylation, respectively (Hochstrasser, 2001; Johnson and Gupta, 2001; Xhemalce et al, 2004; Kerscher et al, 2006). To ‘read’ Ubl modifications and direct the appropriate physiological responses, proteins associated with Ubl-dependent regulatory pathways contain motifs that specifically interact with either SUMO or ubiquitin (Kerscher et al, 2006). Ubiquitin-binding domains (UBDs) are found in proteins associated with degradation, ubiquitination, and DNA repair (Kerscher et al, 2006). Components of the sumoylation pathway, or proteins whose function is modulated by noncovalent SUMO interaction, contain the recently discovered SUMO-specific interaction motifs (SIMs; see Hecker et al, 2006). Historically, unlike ubiquitination, sumoylation does not promote target protein degradation and may in fact stabilize targets by antagonizing their ubiquitination (see Ulrich, 2005). This makes our discovery of a family of E3 ubiquitin ligases that act as SUMO-Targeted Ubiquitin Ligases (STUbLs) all the more intriguing. STUbLs appear to be recruited to sumoylated proteins and proteins containing SUMO-like domains (SLDs) to mediate their ubiquitination and subsequent desumoylation/degradation. The STUbL family includes fission yeast Slx8-Rfp, human RNF4, slime mold MIP1 and budding yeast Slx5 (also known as Hex3)/Slx8 (this study and Moilanen et al, 1998; Mullen et al, 2001; Sobko et al, 2002). STUbL dysfunction causes a specific accumulation of sumoylated protein species and correlated defects in DNA repair and genetic integrity. Reducing total sumoylated species, by deleting the major SUMO E3 ligase Pli1, suppresses these phenotypes. Thus, maintenance of SUMO pathway homeostasis is critical and STUbLs are potent new regulators of this pathway. Complementation of fission yeast Slx8-Rfp mutants by human RNF4 supports the functional conservation of this pathway in humans. Importantly, our studies both identify a novel family of ubiquitin ligases, STUbLs, and, furthermore, provide a mechanistic basis for the role of this previously enigmatic protein family in genome stability. Results Identification of Rfp1 and Rfp2, functional homologues of budding yeast Slx5 We recently identified the Nse5-Nse6 heterodimer of fission yeast, which is required to suppress or resolve toxic DNA recombination structures (Pebernard et al, 2006). In a yeast two-hybrid screen using Nse5 as bait, we isolated an uncharacterized RING finger protein 1 (Rfp1; Figure 1A). Significantly, the budding yeast homolog of Nse5 (Pebernard et al, 2006) also interacts with a RING finger protein called Slx5 (Hazbun et al, 2003). Budding yeast Slx5 heterodimerizes with another RING finger protein, SLX8, and together they maintain genome stability through an undefined mechanism (Mullen et al, 2001). In fission yeast, an Slx8, but not an Slx5 homolog, is detectable through bioinformatics-based approaches. Since both Rfp1 and Slx5 are RING finger proteins that interact with Nse5, we tested whether they were functional homologues. Figure 1.Identification and characterization of the Slx8-Rfp complex. (A) The indicated yeast two-hybrid strains were spotted onto selective plates, which were untreated (No drug), or drug treated (20 mM 3-AT), to identify interacting proteins. Key indicates genes placed into the Gal4 DNA-binding (DBD) or the Gal4-activating (AD) domains. Empty vector (−) and positive controls (Nse5:Nse6 interaction) are shown. (B) Ectopically expressed GST-Rfp1/2 (or GST alone) were induced in an Slx8-myc strain, and subjected to GST pulldown, Inputs and Pulldowns were immunoblotted with anti-myc antisera, amido black staining is shown as a GST loading control. (C) Left panels: localization of ectopically expressed EGFP-Rfp1 or EGFP-Slx8 was detected in live cells. Right panels: DNA staining with DAPI (4′,6′-diamidino-2-phenylindole). Arrowheads indicate Rfp1 subnuclear foci. (D) Serial dilutions of the indicated strains grown at the semipermissive temperature (32°C), which were nontreated (YES), or treated with the indicated concentrations of hydroxyurea (HU), methylmethane sulfonate (MMS), camptothecin (CPT), or ultraviolet (UV) irradiated. (E) The indicated strains were serially diluted on selective media at 32°C, and either untreated, or treated with HU, under induced (−B1) or repressed (+B1) conditions. Download figure Download PowerPoint We first tested whether Rfp1 interacts with Slx8 in vivo. Slx8 was epitope-tagged at its endogenous locus (Slx8-myc) and a GST alone, or GST-Rfp1 fusion protein was expressed in this strain. Purification of GST-Rfp1 resulted in the specific co-precipitation of Slx8-myc (Figure 1B). Furthermore, using a bacterial expression system, the direct interaction between Rfp1 and Slx8 was dependent on the Slx8 RING domain (Supplementary Figure 1). Sequence searches identified an Rfp1 paralogue in fission yeast, Rfp2, which also interacts with Slx8 (Figure 1B). The interactions between Slx8-Rfp1 and Slx8-Rfp2 were further explored using an insect cell expression system (Supplementary Figure 2). These data confirm the Slx8-Rfp1 and Slx8-Rfp2 interactions and further indicate that instead of a possible heterotrimer, Slx8 forms mutually exclusive heterodimers with Rfp1 or Rfp2 (Supplementary Figure 2). Consistent with a function in genome maintenance, both Rfp1 and Slx8 are nuclear (Figure 1C). Notably, ectopically overexpressed Rfp1, but not Slx8, forms subnuclear foci (Figure 1C). We hereafter refer to Slx8-Rfp1 and Slx8-Rfp2 complexes collectively as Slx8-Rfp. Slx8-Rfp is critical for cell survival following genotoxic stress We next analyzed the role of Slx8-Rfp in the cellular response to DNA damage. Fission yeast Slx8 is essential for vegetative growth and mutant cells die with an elongated morphology, caused by G2 DNA damage checkpoint activation (data not shown). Therefore, we generated a temperature-sensitive allele of slx8 (slx8-1). The slx8-1 strain was hypersensitive to hydroxyurea (HU), at a level similar to that of the rad60-3 mutant (Figure 1D). Rad60 is a DNA repair protein regulated by the replication checkpoint, and is required to prevent the formation of toxic recombination-dependent structures during replication arrest (Boddy et al, 2003; Miyabe et al, 2006; Raffa et al, 2006). The slx8-1 and rad60-3 mutants were sensitive to a similar spectrum of DNA-damaging agents, especially those that can potentially block or collapse replication forks (Figure 1D). Unlike slx8-1, the individual rfp1Δ and rfp2Δ strains were not sensitive to any agent tested (Figure 1D). However, deletion of both rfp1 and rfp2 was lethal, resulting in the slx8Δ terminal phenotype, demonstrating the functional redundancy of Rfp1 and Rfp2. To determine the importance of the Rfps in response to replication blocks, we used a haploid rfp1Δ rfp2Δ double mutant that was rescued by inducible rfp1 expression. The pREP41 promoter controlled rfp1 expression, which is attenuated by thiamine (+B1) in the media, or fully induced in the absence of thiamine (−B1; (Maundrell, 1993)). When rfp1 was fully induced, the rfp1Δ rfp2Δ mutant displayed only mild sensitivity to HU, which is likely a result of excess rfp1 (Figure 1E; our unpublished data). However, when rfp1 expression was attenuated, but sufficient for cell viability, we observed extreme HU sensitivity (+B1; Figure 1E). Thus, Rfp depletion causes phenotypes similar to those of slx8-1, supporting their concerted action as an Slx8-Rfp heterodimer. Genetic interactions of slx8-1 support a role in replication stress tolerance The slx8-1 mutation causes sensitivity to replicative stress. Therefore, we tested the genetic interactions of slx8-1 with mutations in known replication fork guardians (Figure 2A). Eme1 is part of the heterodimeric Mus81-Eme1 endonuclease that cleaves recombination-dependent structures arising at stalled or collapsed replication forks (Boddy et al, 2000, 2001; Doe et al, 2002). Rqh1 is homologous to the human RecQ family helicase BLM and suppresses/resolves illegitimate recombination events at the replication fork (Doe et al, 2002). We found that slx8-1 is synthetic lethal with rad60-3, rad60-4, rqh1Δ, and eme1Δ at 34°C (Figure 2A). The genetic interaction between slx8-1 and rqh1Δ echoes that observed between deletions of the budding yeast homologues SLX8 and SGS1 (Mullen et al, 2001). However, in budding yeast, the SLX8 mutant does not depend on MUS81-EME1 (MMS4) for viability (Zhang et al, 2006), highlighting the existence of interesting differences in the functions of these complexes between the distantly related yeasts. These genetic interactions indicate that Slx8-Rfp resolves or suppresses the formation of recombination-dependent structures during replication. Figure 2.Analysis of the slx8-1 mutant phenotypes. (A) The indicated strains were serially diluted onto YES plates at permissive (25°C) or semipermissive (34°C) temperatures. Two independent isolates of slx8-1 rad60-4 are shown. (B) Fluorescence microscopy was used to analyze spontaneous Rad22-YFP foci formation in wild-type and slx8-1 cells, grown at the semipermissive temperature (32°C). DNA staining with DAPI is shown. Arrowheads indicate Rad22-YFP foci. At least 300 cells were scored for each strain. (C) The indicated strains were serially diluted onto YES plates at permissive (25°C) or semipermissive (34°C) temperatures. Download figure Download PowerPoint High levels of spontaneous DNA damage in slx8-1 mutant cells The phenotypes of slx8-1 cells suggest that they might accumulate spontaneous DNA damage. We tested this by analyzing the formation of Rad22-YFP (Rad52) foci in the slx8-1 mutant at 32°C. We observed that a large number of slx8-1 cells had at least one Rad22-YFP focus (Figure 2B). This indicates the presence of DNA damage in slx8-1 cells that is a substrate for the HRR machinery (e.g. DNA double-strand breaks). Indeed, the HRR factors rhp55 (rad55) and rhp51 (rad51) are required for the viability of slx8-1 cells at 34°C (Figure 2C). Rfps interact with SUMO via a conserved SUMO-interaction motif We identified potential SUMO-interacting motifs (SIMs) in Rfp1 and Rfp2, but not Slx8, which are related to the ‘core’ SIM sequence found in the known SUMO interactor, PIAS1 (Hecker et al, 2006) (Figures 3A and 6A). Therefore, we compared the ability of Rfp1, Rfp2, and Slx8 to interact with SUMO in the yeast two-hybrid system. As SIM motifs promote noncovalent interaction with SUMO, we used a conjugation-defective mutant of SUMO that lacks the essential C-terminal di-glycine motif. We found that both Rfp1 and Rfp2, but not Slx8, interact in a noncovalent manner with SUMO (Figure 3B). Furthermore, deletion of the N-terminal 38 amino acids of Rfp1, which contain the SIMs, abolishes this interaction (Figure 3C). These data show that the Rfp1 and Rfp2 SIM sequences support noncovalent interaction with SUMO. To examine the in vivo importance of the Rfp SIMs, we analyzed the effect of overexpressing Rfp1ΔSIM in an rfp1Δ rfp2Δ strain. Overexpressing Rfp1ΔSIM only partially complemented the rfp1Δ rfp2Δ strain in the absence, but not presence, of HU (Figure 3D). In addition, Rfp1ΔSIM is unable to restore sumoylation homeostasis in the rfp1Δ rfp2Δ strain (discussed later and see Supplementary Figure 7). These observations underscore the in vivo importance of Rfp SIMs. Figure 3.SIM-dependent Rfp interactiom with SUMO. (A) S. pombe Rfp1/2 SUMO interacting motifs (SIMs; red) and C-terminal hydrophobic regions (blue) are shown. Identical (*) and conserved residues (:) are indicated. (B, C) The indicated yeast two-hybrid strains were spotted onto selective plates, which were untreated (No drug) or drug treated (20 mM 3-AT), to identify interacting proteins. Key indicates genes in the Gal4 DNA-binding (DBD) or Gal4-activating (AD) domains. Positive (Nse5:Nse6) and empty vector (−) controls are shown. (D) The indicated strains were serially diluted onto selective media at 32°C, and either untreated or HU treated. A full-colour version of this figure is available at the EMBO Journal Online. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 4.Slx8, but not Rfp1/2, is a RING-dependent E3 ubiquitin ligase in vitro. (A, B) In vitro ubiquitination assays containing (+) or not (−) E1, E2, ubiquitin, and GST-Slx8, GST-Slx8 deleted for its RING motif (ΔRING) or GST-Rfp1, as indicated, were resolved by SDS–PAGE and immunoblotted with antisera for ubiquitin or GST. Polyubiquitin (Ubn) and di-ubiquitin (Ub2) chains are indicated. (C) Total lysates were prepared following 7 h incubation at 36°C, resolved by SDS–PAGE and immunoblotted with antisera for SUMO (Pmt3) or Cdc2 (loading control). (D) Upper panels: the indicated strains were serially diluted at the permissive temperature (25°C), with no drug, or semipermissive temperature (34°C) in the presence of 5 mM HU. Western blotting to determine total sumoylation levels in the indicated strains was as described in (C). Download figure Download PowerPoint Slx8 but not Rfp1 or Rfp2 displays E3 ubiquitin ligase activity The presence of RING finger domains in Slx8 and the Rfps indicates that they may possess E3 activity (Joazeiro and Weissman, 2000). Bacterially expressed GST-Slx8 but not GST-Rfps displayed robust E3 activity in vitro, catalyzing the formation of polyubiquitin chains only in the presence of E1, E2, and ATP (Figure 4A; and data not shown). GST-Slx8 appears to undergo extensive autoubiquitination, as often observed for E3s (Figure 4A). Slx8 lacking its RING domain (GST-Slx8ΔRING) was devoid of activity, demonstrating that Slx8 is a RING-dependent E3 ubiquitin ligase (Figure 4B). Figure 5.Rfp stimulates Slx8-dependent ubiquitination of Rad60. (A) Upper panel: S. pombe Rad60 and H. Sapiens NIP45 tandem C-terminal SUMO-Like Domains (SLDs; boxed) are shown. Lower panel: the indicated yeast two-hybrid strains were spotted onto selective plates, which were either untreated (No drug), or drug treated (20 mM 3-AT), to identify interacting proteins. Key indicates the genes placed either into the Gal4 DNA-binding (DBD) or the Gal4-activating (AD) domains. (−) Denotes an empty vector. (B) Ectopically expressed GST-Full Length-Rad60 (GST-F.L.), GST-Rad60 SUMO-Like domains (GST-SLDs), or GST alone were induced in an Slx8-myc strain. Upper panel: (Pulldowns): GST pulldowns were immunoblotted with anti-myc antisera. Amido black staining is shown as a GST loading control. Lower panel (inputs): loading controls were immunoblotted with anti-myc antisera. Two independent strains expressing Rad60 SUMO-Like domains (GST-SLDs) are shown. (C, D) In vitro ubiquitination assays containing (+) or not (−) E1, E2, ubiquitin, Rad60-TAP, GST-Slx8, GST-Slx8 deleted for its RING motif (ΔRING), GST-Rfp1 or GST-Rfp1 deleted for its SIM motif (ΔSIM), as indicated, were resolved by SDS–PAGE and immunoblotted with antisera for Rad60-TAP, ubiquitin, or GST. Polyubiquitin chains (Ubn) are indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint The Slx8-Rfp heterocomplex modulates sumoylation pathway homeostasis The phenotypes caused by Slx8-Rfp mutations are similar to those caused by defects in the sumoylation pathway (al-Khodairy et al, 1995; Tanaka et al, 1999; Taylor et al, 2002). This observation, coupled with the physical interaction between the Rfps and SUMO, led us to investigate regulation of sumoylation in the slx8-1 mutant. Remarkably, a dramatic accumulation of SUMO conjugates was observed in the slx8-1 strain following incubation at the restrictive temperature (Figure 4C). This accumulation of SUMO conjugates was more extensive than that seen in cells lacking the Ulp2 SUMO isopeptidase, a rad60-3 strain, or an mts3-1 proteasome mutant (Figure 4C; also see Supplementary Figure 3A). An mts3-1 slx8-1 double mutant has greatly reduced viability at the semipermissive temperature (32°C) for each single mutant (Supplementary Figure 3B). Since slx8-1 cells activate the DNA damage checkpoint kinase Chk1 at restrictive temperature, we tested whether the accumulation of SUMO conjugates in this background is a result of Chk1-dependent cell cycle arrest. To this end, we constructed an slx8-1 chk1Δ double mutant that no longer undergoes cell cycle arrest at 36°C. The total SUMO conjugates in the slx8-1 chk1Δ double and slx8-1 single mutants were similar, demonstrating that Slx8-Rfp dysfunction rather than cell cycle arrest accounts for this phenomenon (Figure 4C). Suppression of Slx8 mutant phenotypes by deleting the SUMO E3 ligase Pli1 We have established that Slx8-Rfp modulates the sumoylation pathway and is required for genomic stability and DNA repair. However, it was not clear whether the accumulation of sumoylated proteins in slx8-1 mutant cells caused their phenotypes, or was a benign side effect. We hypothesized that deletion of the predominant SUMO E3 ligase Pli1, and consequent reduction in the level of SUMO conjugates, might rescue slx8-1 phenotypes (Xhemalce et al, 2004). Therefore, we constructed an slx8-1 pli1Δ double mutant strain and compared its phenotypes to those of the slx8-1 and pli1Δ single mutants (Figure 4D). The pli1Δ single mutant was viable at 34°C in the presence of HU (Figure 4D, upper panels). Strikingly, the slx8-1 pli1Δ double mutants were also viable under conditions that kill the slx8-1 single mutant (Figure 4D). In light of this rescue, we compared the levels of SUMO conjugates present in the slx8-1, pli1Δ, and slx8-1 pli1Δ double mutant strains (Figure 4D, lower panels). SUMO conjugates were barely visible in the pli1Δ single mutant, as previously observed (Figure 4D, lower panels; Xhemalce et al, 2004). Consistent with the phenotypic rescue of slx8-1 by pli1Δ, total sumoylation levels were much reduced in the slx8-1 pli1Δ double mutant strains, as compared to slx8-1 (Figure 4D, lower panels). These results demonstrate that the critical function of Slx8-Rfp is to maintain sumoylation pathway homeostasis and prevent the toxic accumulation of sumoylated proteins. In addition, deleting Pli1 also rescued the inviability of cells deleted for slx8 (Supplementary Figure 4). As observed in the slx8-1 pli1Δ double mutant, an slx8Δ pli1Δ strain no longer accumulates SUMO conjugates (Supplementary Figure 4). A weak accumulation of SUMO conjugates is observed in the slx8-1 pli1Δ and slx8Δ pli1Δ double mutants as compared to the pli1Δ single mutant (Figure 4D, lower panel long exposure; Supplementary Figure 4). Therefore, Slx8-Rfp also regulates Pli1-independent SUMO conjugates, which are presumably dependent on Nse2, the only other characterized SUMO ligase in fission yeast (Andrews et al, 2005). Identification of DNA repair protein Rad60 as a potential Slx8-Rfp target We performed a yeast two-hybrid screen using Rfp1 as bait and intriguingly, the screen returned 26 independent cDNAs of Rad60 and two of SUMO. The Rfp1–SUMO interaction was predictable based on the identification of SIM motifs in Rfp1. Uniquely, Rad60 and its homologues share the structural feature of tandem SLDs at their C-termini (Figure 5A; (Boddy et al, 2003; Novatchkova et al, 2005)). Therefore, we tested for interaction between Rfp1 and the Rad60 SLDs. A robust interaction was detected, which was Rfp1 SIM-dependent (Figure 5A). The interaction between Rad60 and Slx8-Rfp was then tested in vivo. GST fusion proteins of Rad60, full-length and SLDs, were expressed in a strain that also expressed Slx8-myc from its endogenous locus. Purification of either full-length Rad60 or the SLDs resulted in specific co-purification of Slx8-myc (Figure 5B). Notably, a mutation in the predicted SIM-binding pocket of the Rad60 SLD (F244A) abolishes Rfp1 interaction, as determined in the yeast two-hybrid system (Supplementary Figure 5). Furthermore, fission yeast that express rad60-F244A as the sole chromosomal copy of rad60 are HU sensitive, as observed for slx8 and rfp mutants (Supplementary Figure 5). These data support the physiological relevance of the Rfp1–Rad60 interaction and further show that the Rad60 SLDs mimic SUMO by mediating SIM-dependent interaction with Rfp1. Figure 6.Identification of a Human homolog of Slx8-Rfp. (A) Top left: the SUMO interacting motifs (SIMs; red), C3HC4 RING domain (green), RING-like domain (Blue), and C-terminal hydrophobic regions (black) are shown. Top right: alignments of the indicated proteins, depicting their SIM domains (red). An acidic stretch of amino acids in PIAS, which makes additional contacts with SUMO is underlined. Residues of each protein shown: PIAS, 454–485; Rfp1, 9–44; Rfp2, 14–48; RNF4, 41–68; MIP1, 160–231, and Slx5, 18–34. Lower Panel: C-terminal hydrophobic residues (shaded region) and RING domains (boxed residues) are shown. A region of basic residues common to the Slx8 proteins is underlined. Residues of each protein shown: Rfp2, 193–205; RNF4, 130–190; S. pombe Slx8, 204–269, and S. cerevisiae Slx8, 203–274. (B) The indicated strains were streaked on selective plates, which all contained 5 mM HU. Left panel: slx8-1 transformed with the indicated vectors, incubated at permissive (25°C; upper section) or semipermissive (34°C; lower section) temperatures. Middle and right panels: pRNF4 was either induced (−B1; upper sections) or shut off (+B1; lower sections) in two independent slx8Δ or rfp1Δ rfp2Δ strains. (C) Total lysates were immunoblotted with antisera for SUMO (Pmt3) or Cdc2 (loading control). (D, E) HEK293T cells were transfected