A growing body of evidence concerning estrogen effects cannot be explained by the classic model of hormone action, which involves the binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) α and ERβ and the interaction of the steroid-receptor complex with specific DNA sequences associated with target genes. Using c-fos proto-oncogene expression as an early molecular sensor of estrogen action in ERα-positive MCF7 and ER-negative SKBR3 breast cancer cells, we have discovered that 17β-estradiol (E2), and the two major phytoestrogens, genistein and quercetin, stimulate c-fos expression through ERα as well as through an ER-independent manner via the G protein-coupled receptor homologue GPR30. The c-fos response is repressed in GPR30-expressing SKBR3 cells transfected with an antisense oligonucleotide against GPR30 and reconstituted in GPR30-deficient MDA-MB 231 and BT-20 breast cancer cells transfected with a GPR30 expression vector. GPR30-dependent activation of ERK1/2 by E2 and phytoestrogens occurs via a Gβγ-associated pertussis toxin-sensitive pathway that requires both Src-related and EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activities. The ability of E2 and phytoestrogens to regulate the expression of growth-related genes such as c-fos even in the absence of ER has interesting implications for understanding breast cancer progression. A growing body of evidence concerning estrogen effects cannot be explained by the classic model of hormone action, which involves the binding to estrogen receptors (ERs) α and ERβ and the interaction of the steroid-receptor complex with specific DNA sequences associated with target genes. Using c-fos proto-oncogene expression as an early molecular sensor of estrogen action in ERα-positive MCF7 and ER-negative SKBR3 breast cancer cells, we have discovered that 17β-estradiol (E2), and the two major phytoestrogens, genistein and quercetin, stimulate c-fos expression through ERα as well as through an ER-independent manner via the G protein-coupled receptor homologue GPR30. The c-fos response is repressed in GPR30-expressing SKBR3 cells transfected with an antisense oligonucleotide against GPR30 and reconstituted in GPR30-deficient MDA-MB 231 and BT-20 breast cancer cells transfected with a GPR30 expression vector. GPR30-dependent activation of ERK1/2 by E2 and phytoestrogens occurs via a Gβγ-associated pertussis toxin-sensitive pathway that requires both Src-related and EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activities. The ability of E2 and phytoestrogens to regulate the expression of growth-related genes such as c-fos even in the absence of ER has interesting implications for understanding breast cancer progression. 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In the latter case, however, the activation by E2 involved non-genomic signaling of ERα through the MAPK signaling pathway and phosphorylation and binding of Elk-1 to the serum-response element. Herein, we show that early c-fos expression induced by E2 as well as the phytoestrogens genistein and quercetin is mediated at least in part by ERα in MCF7 breast cancer cells. However, the same agents are able to stimulate c-fos expression independently of ER expression in ER-negative breast cancer cells via GPR30. Reagents—17β-estradiol, genistein, quercetin, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, cycloheximide, wortmannin, pertussis toxin, PD 98059, LY 294002, dexamethasone, progesterone were purchased from Sigma. R1881, ICI 182780, tyrphostin AG 1478, and PP2 were obtained from AstraZeneca (Milan, Italy), Tocris Chemicals (Bristol, UK), Biomol Research Laboratories, Inc (DBA, Milan, Italy), and Calbiochem, respectively. All compounds were solubilized in dimethyl sulfoxide, except E2, hydroxytamoxifen (OHT), PD 98059, and LY 294002, which were dissolved in ethanol. Plasmids—The firefly luciferase reporter plasmids were c-fos and the deletion mutant c-fosΔERE (which lacks the ERE sequence) encoding –2.2-kb and –1172-bp 5′ upstream fragments of human c-fos, respectively (gifts from K. Nose, Tokyo, Japan) (60Kim-Kaneyama J. Shibanuma M. Nose K. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 2002; 299: 360-365Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar) and Gal4-luc for the Gal4-Elk1 fusion protein. The latter two plasmids were described together with menin in our previous study (61Gallo A. Cuozzo C. Esposito I. Maggiolini M. Bonofiglio D. Vivacqua A. Garriamone M. Weiss C. Bohmann D. Musti A.M. Oncogene. 2002; 21: 6434-6445Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar). GPR30 and dominant negative ERK2 (DN/ERK2) expression vectors were kindly provided by R. Weigel (Philadelphia, PA) and M. Cobb (Dallas, TX). The Renilla luciferase expression vector pRL-TK (Promega, Milan, Italy) was used as a transfection standard. Cell Culture—MCF7, MDA-MB-231, BT-20 human breast cancer cells were a gift from E. Surmacz (Philadelphia, PA), whereas SKBR3 human breast cancer cells were from Picard's laboratory (Genève, Switzerland). MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cells were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F12 without phenol red supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen), whereas SKBR3 cells were maintained in RPMI 1640 without phenol red supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen). Cells were switched to medium without serum 24 h before transfections, 48 h before RT-PCR or immunoblot, 72 h before the evaluation of ERK1/ERK2 phosphorylation. Transfections and Luciferase Assays—A total of 100,000 MCF7 cells were plated into 24-well dishes with 500 μl of regular growth medium/well the day before transfection. The medium was replaced with Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium/F12 lacking phenol red and serum on the day of transfection, which was performed using FuGENE 6 reagent as recommended by the manufacturer (Roche Diagnostics) with a mixture containing 0.5 μg of reporter plasmid, 0.1 μg of effector plasmid where applicable, and 2 ng of pRLCMV. After 4 h, the medium was replaced again with serum-free Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium lacking phenol red and containing 1 μm of each treatment, and then cells were incubated for 5 h. Luciferase activity was measured with the dual luciferase kit (Promega) according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Firefly luciferase values were normalized to the internal transfection control provided by the Renilla luciferase activity. The normalized relative light unit values obtained from untreated cells were set as 100%, upon which the activity induced by treatments was calculated. RT-PCR—The evaluation of gene expression was performed by semiquantitative RT-PCR as we have previously described (62Maggiolini M. Donzè O. Picard D. Biol. Chem. 1999; 380: 695-697Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar). For c-fos, pS2, cathepsin D, and GPR30, with 36B4 used as a control gene, the primers were: 5′-CCAACTTCATTCCCACGGTCAC-3′ (c-fos forward) and 5′-TGGCAATCTCGGTCTGCAAA-3′ (c-fos reverse); 5′-TTCTATCCTAATACCATCGACG-3′ (pS2 forward) and 5′-TTTGAGTAGTCAAAGTCAGAGC-3′ (pS2 reverse); 5′-AACAACAGGGTGGGCTTC-3′ (cathepsin D forward) and 5′-ATGCACGAAACAGATCTGTGCT-3′ (cathepsin D reverse); 5′-CTGGGGAGTTTCCTGTCTGA-3′ (GPR30 forward) and 5′-GCTTGGGAAGTCACATCCAT-3′ (GPR30 reverse); 5′-CTCAACATCTCCCCCTTCTC-3′ (36B4 forward) and 5′-CAAATCCCATATCCTCGTCC-3′ (36B4 reverse), to yield products of 381, 303, 210, 155 and 408 bp, respectively, with 20, 13, 20, 20, and 13 PCR cycles, respectively. Western Blotting—Cells were grown in 10-cm dishes and exposed to ligands for 2 or 12 h before lysis in 500 μlof 50 mm HEPES (pH 7.5), 150 mm NaCl, 1.5 mm MgCl2, 1 mm EGTA, 10% glycerol, 1% Triton X-100, 1% SDS, a mixture of protease inhibitors containing 1 mm aprotinin, 20 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, and 0.2 m sodium orthovanadate. Protein concentration was determined by Bradford reagent according to the manufacturer's recommendations (Sigma). Equal amounts of whole protein extract were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel, transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Amersham Biosciences), probed overnight at 4 °C with the antibodies against c-fos, β-actin (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA), and pERK1/2, ERK2 (Cell Signaling Technology, Inc, Celbio, Milan, Italy) and then revealed using the ECL system (Amersham Biosciences). Antisense Oligodeoxynucleotide Experiments—Antisense oligonucleotides were synthesized as described (63O'Dowd B.F. Nguyen T Marchese A. Cheng R. 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Statistical Analysis—Statistical analysis was performed using analysis of variance followed by Newman-Keuls testing to determine differences in means. p < 0.05 was considered as statistically significant. E2, Genistein, and Quercetin Transactivate c-fos Promoter Constructs in MCF7 Cells—In our previous study (4Maggiolini M. Bonofiglio D. Marsico S. Panno M.L. Cenni B. Picard D. Andò S. Mol. Pharmacol. 2001; 60: 595-602PubMed Google Scholar), we demonstrated that an ERE reporter gene transfected in MCF7 cells responds to genistein and quercetin, like E2, through an ERα-mediated mechanism. Thus, in the present study, we first examined whether transiently transfected full-length human c-fos promoter (–2.2 kb) could respond to these phytoestrogens as reported previously for E2 (67Weisz A. Rosales R. Nucleic Acids Res. 1990; 18: 5097-5106Crossref PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar). Fig. 1A demonstrates that genistein and quercetin mirror E2 activity. Activation by all three compounds is sensitive to the MAPK inhibitor PD 98059 and is unaffected by the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin (or LY 294002, not shown). In our previous investigation (61Gallo A. Cuozzo C. Esposito I. Maggiolini M. Bonofiglio D. Vivacqua A. Garriamone M. Weiss C. Bohmann D. Musti A.M. Oncogene. 2002; 21: 6434-6445Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar), we showed that the nuclear protein encoded by the tumor suppressor gene MEN1, named menin, inhibits ERK-dependent phosphorylation and activation of the ternary complex factor member Elk-1, which regulates c-fos gene expression. Therefore, we evaluated the action of menin on the transactivation property of estrogenic compounds using the above mentioned c-fos promoter assay and a corresponding reporter gene assay for monitoring the activation of Gal4-Elk-1. As expected, luciferase activity of both constructs was reversed in the presence of menin (Fig. 1, A and B). The transactivation of Elk-1 by E2 and phytoestrogens confirmed its involvement in c-fos expression, whereas the inhibitory effects of PD 98059 indicated that a MAPK-dependent mechanism is required for such a response (Fig. 1B). Interestingly, the transcriptional potential of these compounds was maintained using a mutant of the c-fos promoter lacking the ERE region (–1172 bp), suggesting that other pathways, not requiring an ERα-ERE interaction, contribute to c-fos transactivation. E2, Genistein, and Quercetin Rapidly Induce c-fos mRNA Expression in ERα-positive MCF7 Cells—It has been largely reported (28Treisman R. Cell. 1986; 46: 567-574Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (526) Google Scholar, 29Fisch T.M. Prywes R. Roeder R.G. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1987; 7: 3490-3502Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar, 30Wilding G. Lippman M.E. Gelmann E.P. Cancer Res. 1988; 48: 802-805PubMed Google Scholar, 31Shaw P.E. Schroter H. Nordheim A. 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A similar exposure with E2, genistein, and quercetin also resulted in a significant c-fos protein induction (Fig. 3A) that was dependen