Intraflagellar transport (IFT) depends on two evolutionarily conserved modules, subcomplexes A (IFT-A) and B (IFT-B), to drive ciliary assembly and maintenance. All six IFT-A components and their motor protein, DYNC2H1, have been linked to human skeletal ciliopathies, including asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy (ATD; also known as Jeune syndrome), Sensenbrenner syndrome, and Mainzer-Saldino syndrome (MZSDS). Conversely, the 14 subunits in the IFT-B module, with the exception of IFT80, have unknown roles in human disease. To identify additional IFT-B components defective in ciliopathies, we independently performed different mutation analyses: candidate-based sequencing of all IFT-B-encoding genes in 1,467 individuals with a nephronophthisis-related ciliopathy or whole-exome resequencing in 63 individuals with ATD. We thereby detected biallelic mutations in the IFT-B-encoding gene IFT172 in 12 families. All affected individuals displayed abnormalities of the thorax and/or long bones, as well as renal, hepatic, or retinal involvement, consistent with the diagnosis of ATD or MZSDS. Additionally, cerebellar aplasia or hypoplasia characteristic of Joubert syndrome was present in 2 out of 12 families. Fibroblasts from affected individuals showed disturbed ciliary composition, suggesting alteration of ciliary transport and signaling. Knockdown of ift172 in zebrafish recapitulated the human phenotype and demonstrated a genetic interaction between ift172 and ift80. In summary, we have identified defects in IFT172 as a cause of complex ATD and MZSDS. Our findings link the group of skeletal ciliopathies to an additional IFT-B component, IFT172, similar to what has been shown for IFT-A. Intraflagellar transport (IFT) depends on two evolutionarily conserved modules, subcomplexes A (IFT-A) and B (IFT-B), to drive ciliary assembly and maintenance. All six IFT-A components and their motor protein, DYNC2H1, have been linked to human skeletal ciliopathies, including asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy (ATD; also known as Jeune syndrome), Sensenbrenner syndrome, and Mainzer-Saldino syndrome (MZSDS). Conversely, the 14 subunits in the IFT-B module, with the exception of IFT80, have unknown roles in human disease. To identify additional IFT-B components defective in ciliopathies, we independently performed different mutation analyses: candidate-based sequencing of all IFT-B-encoding genes in 1,467 individuals with a nephronophthisis-related ciliopathy or whole-exome resequencing in 63 individuals with ATD. We thereby detected biallelic mutations in the IFT-B-encoding gene IFT172 in 12 families. All affected individuals displayed abnormalities of the thorax and/or long bones, as well as renal, hepatic, or retinal involvement, consistent with the diagnosis of ATD or MZSDS. Additionally, cerebellar aplasia or hypoplasia characteristic of Joubert syndrome was present in 2 out of 12 families. Fibroblasts from affected individuals showed disturbed ciliary composition, suggesting alteration of ciliary transport and signaling. Knockdown of ift172 in zebrafish recapitulated the human phenotype and demonstrated a genetic interaction between ift172 and ift80. In summary, we have identified defects in IFT172 as a cause of complex ATD and MZSDS. Our findings link the group of skeletal ciliopathies to an additional IFT-B component, IFT172, similar to what has been shown for IFT-A. Cilia are hair-like structures that project from the surface of most mammalian cells and are involved in diverse signaling pathways. Mutations in genes encoding ciliary proteins lead to "ciliopathies," a collection of complex developmental disorders of multiple organ systems.1Baker K. Beales P.L. Making sense of cilia in disease: the human ciliopathies.Am. J. Med. Genet. C. Semin. Med. Genet. 2009; 151C: 281-295Crossref PubMed Scopus (246) Google Scholar, 2Hildebrandt F. Benzing T. Katsanis N. Ciliopathies.N. Engl. J. Med. 2011; 364: 1533-1543Crossref PubMed Scopus (974) Google Scholar, 3Badano J.L. Mitsuma N. Beales P.L. Katsanis N. The ciliopathies: an emerging class of human genetic disorders.Annu. Rev. Genomics Hum. Genet. 2006; 7: 125-148Crossref PubMed Scopus (887) Google Scholar Although there is broad clinical overlap, ciliopathies have been divided into subgroups on the basis of their predominant clinical phenotype and major organ involvement; nephronophthisis-related ciliopathies (NPHP-RCs) and skeletal ciliopathies are such examples. Whereas by definition NPHP-RCs show cystic renal degeneration,2Hildebrandt F. Benzing T. Katsanis N. Ciliopathies.N. Engl. J. Med. 2011; 364: 1533-1543Crossref PubMed Scopus (974) Google Scholar skeletal ciliopathies primarily manifest with a bone-related phenotype, such as polydactyly (e.g., in short-rib-polydactyly syndromes [SRPSs; MIM 263510] and Ellis-van-Creveld syndrome [EVC; MIM 225500]), thoracic dystrophy (e.g., in SRPSs and asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy [ATD], also known as Jeune syndrome [MIM 208500]), phalangeal cone-shaped epiphysis (e.g., in Mainzer-Saldino syndrome [MZSDS; MIM 266920]), or dolichocephaly and hypodontia and/or microdontia (e.g., in cranioectodermal dysplasia [CED], also known as Sensenbrenner syndrome [MIM 218330]).4Huber C. Cormier-Daire V. Ciliary disorder of the skeleton.Am. J. Med. Genet. C. Semin. Med. Genet. 2012; 160C: 165-174Crossref PubMed Scopus (168) Google Scholar Whereas proteins associated with NPHP-RCs mainly function at the ciliary transition zone,5Czarnecki P.G. Shah J.V. The ciliary transition zone: from morphology and molecules to medicine.Trends Cell Biol. 2012; 22: 201-210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar most proteins associated with skeletal ciliopathies have been shown to participate in intraflagellar transport (IFT). IFT is an evolutionarily conserved kinesin- and dynein-mediated bidirectional trafficking system essential for cilium assembly and maintenance and is facilitated by two major subcomplexes, A (IFT-A) and B (IFT-B). Ciliary proteins found to be defective in skeletal disorders currently encompass the following four main subgroups: (1) all six subunits of IFT-A6Arts H.H. Bongers E.M.H.F. Mans D.A. van Beersum S.E.C. Oud M.M. Bolat E. Spruijt L. Cornelissen E.A.M. Schuurs-Hoeijmakers J.H.M. de Leeuw N. et al.C14ORF179 encoding IFT43 is mutated in Sensenbrenner syndrome.J. Med. Genet. 2011; 48: 390-395Crossref PubMed Scopus (108) Google Scholar, 7Walczak-Sztulpa J. Eggenschwiler J. Osborn D. Brown D.A. Emma F. Klingenberg C. Hennekam R.C. Torre G. Garshasbi M. Tzschach A. et al.Cranioectodermal Dysplasia, Sensenbrenner syndrome, is a ciliopathy caused by mutations in the IFT122 gene.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2010; 86: 949-956Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (149) Google Scholar, 8Gilissen C. Arts H.H. Hoischen A. Spruijt L. Mans D.A. Arts P. van Lier B. Steehouwer M. van Reeuwijk J. Kant S.G. et al.Exome sequencing identifies WDR35 variants involved in Sensenbrenner syndrome.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2010; 87: 418-423Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (229) Google Scholar, 9Bredrup C. Saunier S. Oud M.M. Fiskerstrand T. Hoischen A. Brackman D. Leh S.M. Midtbø M. Filhol E. Bole-Feysot C. et al.Ciliopathies with skeletal anomalies and renal insufficiency due to mutations in the IFT-A gene WDR19.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2011; 89: 634-643Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (164) Google Scholar, 10Davis E.E. Zhang Q. Liu Q. Diplas B.H. Davey L.M. Hartley J. Stoetzel C. Szymanska K. Ramaswami G. Logan C.V. et al.NISC Comparative Sequencing ProgramTTC21B contributes both causal and modifying alleles across the ciliopathy spectrum.Nat. Genet. 2011; 43: 189-196Crossref PubMed Scopus (266) Google Scholar, 11Perrault I. Saunier S. Hanein S. Filhol E. Bizet A.A. Collins F. Salih M.A. Gerber S. Delphin N. Bigot K. et al.Mainzer-Saldino syndrome is a ciliopathy caused by IFT140 mutations.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2012; 90: 864-870Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar and its motor protein, DYNC2H1,12Dagoneau N. Goulet M. Geneviève D. Sznajer Y. Martinovic J. Smithson S. Huber C. Baujat G. Flori E. Tecco L. et al.DYNC2H1 mutations cause asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy and short rib-polydactyly syndrome, type III.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2009; 84: 706-711Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (178) Google Scholar whose defects have been shown to disrupt retrograde transport and cause IFT protein accumulation at the ciliary tip; (2) NEK1, a serine-threonine kinase involved in cell-cycle control and ciliogenesis;13Thiel C. Kessler K. Giessl A. Dimmler A. Shalev S.A. von der Haar S. Zenker M. Zahnleiter D. Stöss H. Beinder E. et al.NEK1 mutations cause short-rib polydactyly syndrome type majewski.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2011; 88: 106-114Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (125) Google Scholar (3) EVC and EVC2, both located at the basal body as positive regulators of sonic hedgehog signaling;14Ruiz-Perez V.L. Ide S.E. Strom T.M. Lorenz B. Wilson D. Woods K. King L. Francomano C. Freisinger P. Spranger S. et al.Mutations in a new gene in Ellis-van Creveld syndrome and Weyers acrodental dysostosis.Nat. Genet. 2000; 24: 283-286Crossref PubMed Scopus (247) Google Scholar, 15Ruiz-Perez V.L. Tompson S.W. Blair H.J. Espinoza-Valdez C. Lapunzina P. Silva E.O. Hamel B. Gibbs J.L. Young I.D. Wright M.J. Goodship J.A. Mutations in two nonhomologous genes in a head-to-head configuration cause Ellis-van Creveld syndrome.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2003; 72: 728-732Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar and (4) IFT80 (intraflagellar transport 80 homolog [Chlamydomonas]), one of 14 subunits of IFT-B, which is involved in anterograde IFT. Although all six IFT-A components are implicated in skeletal ciliopathies, none of the IFT-B components have been shown to play a role in human disease to date; the only exception is IFT80, encoded by IFT80 (MIM 611263), the first gene identified as causing ATD when mutated.16Beales P.L. Bland E. Tobin J.L. Bacchelli C. Tuysuz B. Hill J. Rix S. Pearson C.G. Kai M. Hartley J. et al.IFT80, which encodes a conserved intraflagellar transport protein, is mutated in Jeune asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy.Nat. Genet. 2007; 39: 727-729Crossref PubMed Scopus (252) Google Scholar Given the fact that IFT-B is critical for ciliogenesis in mice,17Huangfu D. Liu A. Rakeman A.S. Murcia N.S. Niswander L. Anderson K.V. Hedgehog signalling in the mouse requires intraflagellar transport proteins.Nature. 2003; 426: 83-87Crossref PubMed Scopus (1062) Google Scholar, 18Murcia N.S. Richards W.G. Yoder B.K. Mucenski M.L. Dunlap J.R. Woychik R.P. The Oak Ridge Polycystic Kidney (orpk) disease gene is required for left-right axis determination.Development. 2000; 127: 2347-2355Crossref PubMed Google Scholar we sought to elucidate whether additional IFT-B proteins are defective in individuals with ciliopathies, particularly skeletal ciliopathies. To identify additional genes mutated in ciliopathies, we applied targeted candidate-gene sequencing and whole-exome capture with next-generation sequencing (also known as whole-exome resequencing [WER]) to a large multicenter cohort of 1,530 individuals with ciliopathies. Written informed consent was obtained from all individuals enrolled in this study and approved by the institutional review boards at the University of Michigan, the University College London Institute of Child Health (in partnership with the Great Ormond Street NHS Hospital Trust), Paris Descartes University, University of British Columbia, University of Queensland, University of Birmingham, and Duke University Medical Center. The diagnosis of NPHP-RCs and/or ATD was based on published clinical criteria.19Chaki M. Hoefele J. Allen S.J. Ramaswami G. Janssen S. Bergmann C. Heckenlively J.R. Otto E.A. Hildebrandt F. Genotype-phenotype correlation in 440 patients with NPHP-related ciliopathies.Kidney Int. 2011; 80: 1239-1245Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar Mutation analysis was performed by three different approaches in five independent cohorts of individuals with NPHP-RCs or skeletal ciliopathies. In 12 families, we identified a total of 14 individuals who had biallelic mutations in IFT172 (intraflagellar transport 172 homolog [Chlamydomonas], also known as SLB, selective LIM binding factor homolog [RefSeq accession number NM_015662.1, MIM 607386]) and who shared a phenotype including skeletal abnormalities, nephronophthisis (NPHP), and liver and eye involvement, consistent with the diagnosis of complex ATD or MZSDS (Table 1). Whenever available, we obtained parental DNA to show segregation of a recessive trait by Sanger sequencing (Figure S1, available online, and Table 1).Table 1IFT172 Mutations in 14 Individuals from 12 Families Affected by Skeletal Ciliopathies, ATD and MZSDSIndividualaIn sibling cases, clinical information refers to the underlined individual.Ethnic OriginNucleotide MutationbcDNA mutations are numbered according to human cDNA RefSeq NM_015662.1 (IFT172); +1 corresponds to the A of the ATG start translation codon.Deduced Protein AlterationExon or Intron (Zygosity, Segregation)Amino Acid Evolutionary ConservationPolyPhen-2 (HumVar)MutationTasterParental ConsanguinityClinical DiagnosisSkeletal FeaturesRenal Disease (ESRD)Other Clinical FeaturesNPH2218Hungarianc.432delAp.Lys144Asnfs∗156 (het, p)---noATD, JBTSTD, SS, SLBNPHP (6 years)RD, LF, OMA, CVH, ID, obesityc.4161G>AcThis variant abrogates the 3′ splice site (Figure S2). It is in 1000 Genomes (its minor allele frequency is not annotated), but not in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Exome Sequencing Project Exome Variant Server (EVS).p.Arg1387Serfs∗738 (het, m)---A3189-21Pakistanic.886C>TdNHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): T/T = 0; T/C = 1; C/C = 6,502.p.Arg296Trp9 (hom)D. melanogaster0.967DCyesMZSDSSSNPHP (9 years)RD, ID, died at 12 yearsUCL-87Turkishc.1232T>Ap.Ile411Asn13 (hom) (het, p/m)D. melanogaster0.890DCyesATDTD, TA, PD (feet)none (−)LF, died at 18 monthsUCL-107Turkishc.1232T>Ap.Ile411Asn13 (hom)D. melanogaster0.890DCyesATDTD, TAnone (−)LF, died at 3 monthsNPH2161Frenchc.1390_1395delGATATTp.Asp464_Ile465 del14 (het)D. melanogaster and D. rerio--NDMZSDSBDNPHP (34 years)RD, cholestasisc.5179T>CeNHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): C/C = 0; C/T = 1; T/T = 6,502.p.Cys1727Arg48 (het)D. rerio0.648DCB1Belgianc.1671_1672dupAGp.Val558Glufs∗1216 (het, p)---noATDTD, TA, PSCE, BD, PDnone (−)RD, IDc.5179T>CeNHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): C/C = 0; C/T = 1; T/T = 6,502.p.Cys1727Arg48 (het, m)D. rerio0.648DCSKDP-44.3Britishc.2158delCp.Arg720Valfs∗2821 (het, m)---noATDTD, TA, SS, BDmild structural abnormalitiesRD, cholestasis, OMA, ID, obesityc.5179T>CeNHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): C/C = 0; C/T = 1; T/T = 6,502.p.Cys1727Arg48 (het, p)D. rerio0.648DCA3215-21South Americanc.2716C>Tp.Gln906∗25 (het, m)---noATDTD, SS, GVNPHP (12 years), RTX (13 years)IDc.4607T>Cp.Leu1536Pro42 (het, p)C. reinhardtii0.807DCF108-21Germanc.3228+1G>A5′ splice site29 (het, m)---noMZSDSPCSE, BDNPHP (11 years)RD, LF, IGT, obesityc.4607T>Cp.Leu1536Pro42 (het, p)C. reinhardtii0.807DCSKDP-165.3Singaporean and Malaysianc.3907C>Tp.Arg1303∗35 (het, p)---noATDTD, TA, PD, SLBearly cystic dysplasiaLF, VSD, hydrocephalus, died by induced abortionc.4630C>Tp.Arg1544Cys42 (het, m)D. melanogaster0.991DCA2052-21 and A2052-22Filipinoc.4630C>Tp.Arg1544Cys42 (hom) (het, p/m)D. melanogaster0.991DCyesATD, MZSDS, JBTSTD, TA, PCSE, BDNPHP (2 years), RTX (4 years)RD, LF, OMA, CVH, IDA3037-21 and A3037-22European Americanc.4925_4928del GAGAp.Arg1642Lysfs∗3246 (het, p)---noMZSDSPCSE, BDNPHP (20 years)RD, LF, obesityc.5179T>CeNHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): C/C = 0; C/T = 1; T/T = 6,502.p.Cys1727Arg48 (het, m)D. rerio0.648DCAbbreviations are as follows: BD, brachydactyly; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; CVH, cerebellar vermis hypoplasia; DC, predicted to be "disease causing"; GV, genu valgum; het, heterozygous; hom, homozygous; ID, intellectual disability; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; ATD, asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy; JBTS, Joubert syndrome; LF, liver fibrosis; m, maternal; MZSDS, Mainzer-Saldino syndrome; ND, no data; NPHP, nephronophthisis; OMA, ocular motor apraxia; p, paternal; PD, polydactyly; PCSE, phalangeal cone-shaped epiphysis; RD, retinal degeneration; RTX, renal transplantation; SLB, short long bone; SS, short stature; TA, trident acetabulum; TD, thoracic dystrophy (small bell-shaped thorax); and VSD, ventriculoseptal defect.a In sibling cases, clinical information refers to the underlined individual.b cDNA mutations are numbered according to human cDNA RefSeq NM_015662.1 (IFT172); +1 corresponds to the A of the ATG start translation codon.c This variant abrogates the 3′ splice site (Figure S2). It is in 1000 Genomes (its minor allele frequency is not annotated), but not in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) Exome Sequencing Project Exome Variant Server (EVS).d NHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): T/T = 0; T/C = 1; C/C = 6,502.e NHLBI EVS (n = 6,503 control subjects): C/C = 0; C/T = 1; T/T = 6,502. Open table in a new tab Abbreviations are as follows: BD, brachydactyly; ESRD, end-stage renal disease; CVH, cerebellar vermis hypoplasia; DC, predicted to be "disease causing"; GV, genu valgum; het, heterozygous; hom, homozygous; ID, intellectual disability; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; ATD, asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy; JBTS, Joubert syndrome; LF, liver fibrosis; m, maternal; MZSDS, Mainzer-Saldino syndrome; ND, no data; NPHP, nephronophthisis; OMA, ocular motor apraxia; p, paternal; PD, polydactyly; PCSE, phalangeal cone-shaped epiphysis; RD, retinal degeneration; RTX, renal transplantation; SLB, short long bone; SS, short stature; TA, trident acetabulum; TD, thoracic dystrophy (small bell-shaped thorax); and VSD, ventriculoseptal defect. First, we performed a candidate-gene screening of all 14 genes encoding IFT-B complex proteins (Table S1) in 1,056 affected individuals with NPHP-RCs by applying a recently developed mutation-analysis method of microfluidic array-based multiplex PCR and consecutive barcoded next-generation sequencing (NGS).20Halbritter J. Diaz K. Chaki M. Porath J.D. Tarrier B. Fu C. Innis J.L. Allen S.J. Lyons R.H. Stefanidis C.J. et al.High-throughput mutation analysis in patients with a nephronophthisis-associated ciliopathy applying multiplexed barcoded array-based PCR amplification and next-generation sequencing.J. Med. Genet. 2012; 49: 756-767Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar As a result, we detected seven individuals with recessive IFT172 mutations in five families. Three individuals from two families were homozygous for missense mutations (A3189-21, c.886C>T [p.Arg296Trp]; A2052-21 and A2052-22, c.4630C>T [p.Arg1544Cys]). Another four individuals from three families were compound heterozygous for a truncating and a missense mutation (A3215-21, c.2716C>T [p.Gln906∗] and c.4607T>C [p.Leu1536Pro]; F108-21, c.3228+1G>A and c.4607T>C [p.Leu1536Pro]; A3037-21 and A3037-22, c.4925_4928delGAGA [p.Arg1642Lysfs∗32] and c.5179T>C [p.Cys1727Arg]). All detected missense residues were highly conserved throughout evolution (Table 1). Most affected individuals exhibited NPHP with progressive renal insufficiency in childhood and reached end-stage renal disease (ESRD) by 20 years of age. Three subjects (A3215-21, A2052-21, and A2052-22) showed thoracic dystrophy with chronic respiratory distress, necessitating intermittent mechanical ventilation (Figure 1A ). All three presented with the clinical characteristics of ATD: thoracic dystrophy with a trident acetabular roof and shortening of the long bones (Figure 1 and Table 1). The affected siblings from family A2052, as well as three other individuals (A3037-21, A3037-22, and F108-21), displayed phalangeal cone-shaped epiphysis, a hallmark of MZSDS (Figure 1G), in addition to liver fibrosis and retinal dystrophy. Interestingly, both siblings from family A2052 also exhibited cerebellar vermis hypoplasia, representing an exceedingly rare co-occurrence of ATD, MZSDS, and Joubert syndrome (JBTS [MIM 213300]).21Lehman A.M. Eydoux P. Doherty D. Glass I.A. Chitayat D. Chung B.Y.H. Langlois S. Yong S.L. Lowry R.B. Hildebrandt F. Trnka P. Co-occurrence of Joubert syndrome and Jeune asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy.Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 2010; 152A: 1411-1419PubMed Google Scholar Three of the individuals with MZSDS (A3037-21, A3037-22, and F108-21) also presented with obesity and impaired glucose tolerance, suggesting a phenotypic overlap with Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS [MIM 209900]) (Table 1). Mutations in genes most frequently associated with NPHP (NPHP1–NPHP13) had been previously excluded in all affected individuals.22Halbritter J. Porath J.D. Diaz K.A. Braun D.A. Kohl S. Chaki M. Allen S.J. Soliman N.A. Hildebrandt F. Otto E.A. GPN Study GroupIdentification of 99 novel mutations in a worldwide cohort of 1,056 patients with a nephronophthisis-related ciliopathy.Hum. Genet. 2013; 132: 865-884Crossref PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar Similarly, we conducted bidirectional Sanger sequencing of the coding exons and intron-exon boundaries of all 14 IFT-B-encoding genes in another cohort of 296 individuals with ciliopathies. We thereby identified compound-heterozygous changes in IFT172: the previously identified missense mutation c.5179T>C (p.Cys1727Arg) and a frameshifting 2 bp deletion, c.1671_1672dupAG (p.Val558Glufs∗12), in a Belgian female with ATD (B1, Table 1 and Figure S1). Notably, her initial symptoms were bilateral postaxial polydactyly of the hands at birth and night blindness at 5 years of age. Subsequent clinical evaluation revealed a mildly hypoplastic left thoracic cage, rhizomelic shortening of the limbs with brachydactyly, short phalanges, and a trident acetabulum. Ultrasonography at the time of ascertainment revealed no significant abnormalities in the kidneys, liver, or pancreas.23Casteels I. Demandt E. Legius E. Visual loss as the presenting sign of Jeune syndrome.Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 2000; 4: 243-247Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar Second, by applying exon-enriched NGS of 1,209 ciliary candidate genes, including those encoding all 14 IFT-B components ("ciliome sequencing"),11Perrault I. Saunier S. Hanein S. Filhol E. Bizet A.A. Collins F. Salih M.A. Gerber S. Delphin N. Bigot K. et al.Mainzer-Saldino syndrome is a ciliopathy caused by IFT140 mutations.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2012; 90: 864-870Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar in another 115 individuals with NPHP-RCs, we found two individuals with compound-heterozygous IFT172 mutations. Individual NPH2218 carried two truncating mutations, a frameshift mutation in exon 6 (c.432delA [p.Lys144Asnfs∗15]), and a nucleotide change that affected the first base of exon 38 and thus abrogated the acceptor splice site and led to a truncated protein (c.4161G>A [p.Arg1387Serfs∗7]) (Figure S2). This individual exhibited a severe phenotype with shortened long bones, resulting in severe dwarfism, obesity, brachydactyly, and NPHP with early-onset ESRD (Figures 1E, 1F, and 1K). Additionally, he also presented with liver failure, retinal degeneration, severe intellectual disability, oculomotor apraxia, and partial agenesis of the cerebellar vermis, consistent with JBTS (Figure 1J). In contrast, individual NPH2161 displayed a milder phenotype evoking MZSDS as a result of late-onset retinitis pigmentosa, NPHP with adult-onset ESRD (at 34 years), cholestasis, and short hands. This individual carried a missense allele (c.5179T>C [p.Cys1727Arg], conserved to D. rerio) and an in-frame deletion (c.1390_1395delGATATT [p.Asp464_Ile465del], conserved to D. rerio and D. melanogaster). Third, WER was independently performed in two separate ATD cohorts, one from the United Kingdom and one from Australia. In the United Kingdom cohort, we performed WER in 56 individuals with the clinical diagnosis of ATD. We thereby identified a homozygous missense mutation in IFT172 (c.1232T>A [p.Ile411Asn], conserved to D. melanogaster) in an individual of consanguineous Turkish descent (UCL-87). Parallel sequencing of 60 more ATD cases with the use of a NGS gene-panel approach revealed the same mutation in a second individual of consanguineous Turkish descent (UCL-107). In addition to showing characteristic ATD features, such as a bell-shaped narrow thorax with short ribs, handlebar clavicles, and a trident acetabulum (Figures 1B, 1D, 1I, and 1L), both individuals displayed hepatosplenomegaly, dilated intrahepatic bile ducts, and liver failure similarly to the previously detected individuals (F108-21, A3037-21, and A2052-21). In contrast to most of the described subjects, UCL-87 additionally presented with postaxial polydactyly of the feet (Figure 1C). Renal disease was not reported in either of them. However, because both individuals died within the first 18 months of life as a result of respiratory (UCL-107)24Tüysüz B. Bariş S. Aksoy F. Madazlı R. Ungür S. Sever L. Clinical variability of asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy (Jeune) syndrome: Evaluation and classification of 13 patients.Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 2009; 149A: 1727-1733Crossref PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar or liver (UCL-87) failure, renal involvement could not be completely excluded or might have developed later in life. WER variant analysis was performed as previously described.25McInerney-Leo A.M. Schmidts M. Cortés C.R. Leo P.J. Gener B. Courtney A.D. Gardiner B. Harris J.A. Lu Y. Marshall M. et al.UK10K ConsortiumShort-Rib Polydactyly and Jeune Syndromes Are Caused by Mutations in WDR60.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2013; 93: 515-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar In UCL-87, the above mutation was one out of three remaining homozygous missense variants found in three different genes. Only two variants, the one in IFT172 and one in ERCC6, were located on a long homozygosity stretch corresponding to parental consanguinity.26Hildebrandt F. Heeringa S.F. Rüschendorf F. Attanasio M. Nürnberg G. Becker C. Seelow D. Huebner N. Chernin G. Vlangos C.N. et al.A systematic approach to mapping recessive disease genes in individuals from outbred populations.PLoS Genet. 2009; 5: e1000353Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar ERCC6 is known to cause Cockayne syndrome type B (MIM 133540), a recessive UV-sensitive nucleotide-excision-repair disorder characterized by neurological and sensory impairment, cachectic dwarfism, and photosensitivity.27Troelstra C. van Gool A. de Wit J. Vermeulen W. Bootsma D. Hoeijmakers J.H.J. ERCC6, a member of a subfamily of putative helicases, is involved in Cockayne's syndrome and preferential repair of active genes.Cell. 1992; 71: 939-953Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (620) Google Scholar Therefore, considering the individual's phenotype and taking the evolutionary conservation of both missense variants into account, IFT172 remained the most likely disease-associated candidate (Table S2). In the Australian cohort, we performed WER in seven individuals with ATD and identified two individuals with compound-heterozygous mutations in IFT172 (SKDP-165.3 and SKDP-44.3). SKDP-165.3 carried a truncating mutation (c.3907C>T [p.Arg1303∗]) and a missense mutation (c.4630C>T [p.Arg1544Cys], conserved to D. melanogaster). SKDP-44.3 carried a single-base frameshift deletion (c.2158delC [p.Arg720Valfs∗28]) and a missense mutation (c.5179T>C [p.Cys1727Arg], conserved to D. rerio). Internal WER data of 993 unrelated control individuals did not demonstrate any other person with compound-heterozygous mutations in IFT172. An ultrasound scan of SKDP-165.3 at 16 weeks of gestation demonstrated a facial cleft with an absent nasal bone, hydrocephalus, cardiac malformation, tetramelic polydactyly, short long bones, and echogenic kidneys; the pregnancy was terminated at this stage. Postmortem examination demonstrated intrauterine growth restriction, a turricephaly-like skull shape, upper-lip paramedian cleft extending into the palate, hypoplasia of the nasal bridge and nose, postaxial hexadactyly of all four limbs, hydrocephalus, possible brain heterotopia, a ventriculoseptal defect, bilateral adrenal hypoplasia, prominent hepatic ductal plates, and early renal cystic dysplasia (Table 1). Other skeletal changes included shortened and curved long bones, relatively short ribs, mild platyspondyly, and spur-like projections of the acetabular roof (Figure 1H). ATD was considered the most likely diagnosis. WER was performed as previously described.25McInerney-Leo A.M. Schmidts M. Cortés C.R. Leo P.J. Gener B. Courtney A.D. Gardiner B. Harris J.A. Lu Y. Marshall M. et al.UK10K ConsortiumShort-Rib Polydactyly and Jeune Syndromes Are Caused by Mutations in WDR60.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2013; 93: 515-523Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar Given parental nonconsanguinity, compound heterozygosity was thought the most likely form of inheritance. Seven genes carried two or more novel (absent from public databases) or rare (minor allele frequency < 0.001) nonsynonymous SNPs, small insertions, or exon or splice-site deletions predicted to be damaging. Two of these genes (IFT172 and STXBP5L) were represented in the cilia proteome and had appropriate familial segregation of variants; however, only IFT172 had two variants that were in highly conserved regions and had a deleterious effect predicted by PolyPhen-2, SIFT, and MutationTaster. Thus, IFT172 was considered the most likely candidate (Tables S3 and S4). SKDP-44.3, the last individual of the Australian cohort, had neonatal respiratory distress. Poor vision was noted from the age of 6 weeks, leading to the diagnosis of retinal dystrophy. Speech was delayed, and brain MRI revealed mild ventriculomegaly. Frequent and severe chest