The gut microbiota has recently been identified as an environmental factor that may promote metabolic diseases. To investigate the effect of gut microbiota on host energy and lipid metabolism, we compared the serum metabolome and the lipidomes of serum, adipose tissue, and liver of conventionally raised (CONV-R) and germ-free mice. The serum metabolome of CONV-R mice was characterized by increased levels of energy metabolites, e.g., pyruvic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid, while levels of cholesterol and fatty acids were reduced. We also showed that the microbiota modified a number of lipid species in the serum, adipose tissue, and liver, with its greatest effect on triglyceride and phosphatidylcholine species. Triglyceride levels were lower in serum but higher in adipose tissue and liver of CONV-R mice, consistent with increased lipid clearance. Our findings show that the gut microbiota affects both host energy and lipid metabolism and highlights its role in the development of metabolic diseases. The gut microbiota has recently been identified as an environmental factor that may promote metabolic diseases. To investigate the effect of gut microbiota on host energy and lipid metabolism, we compared the serum metabolome and the lipidomes of serum, adipose tissue, and liver of conventionally raised (CONV-R) and germ-free mice. The serum metabolome of CONV-R mice was characterized by increased levels of energy metabolites, e.g., pyruvic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid, while levels of cholesterol and fatty acids were reduced. We also showed that the microbiota modified a number of lipid species in the serum, adipose tissue, and liver, with its greatest effect on triglyceride and phosphatidylcholine species. Triglyceride levels were lower in serum but higher in adipose tissue and liver of CONV-R mice, consistent with increased lipid clearance. Our findings show that the gut microbiota affects both host energy and lipid metabolism and highlights its role in the development of metabolic diseases. The mammalian gut microbiota is a complex and dynamic ecosystem (1Eckburg P.B. Bik E.M. Bernstein C.N. Purdom E. Dethlefsen L. Sargent M. Gill S.R. Nelson K.E. Relman D.A. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora.Science. 2005; 308: 1635-1638Crossref PubMed Scopus (5393) Google Scholar, 2Ley R.E. Backhed F. Turnbaugh P. Lozupone C.A. Knight R.D. Gordon J.I. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2005; 102: 11070-11075Crossref PubMed Scopus (4208) Google Scholar, 3Ley R.E. Turnbaugh P.J. Klein S. Gordon J.I. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity.Nature. 2006; 444: 1022-1023Crossref PubMed Scopus (5940) Google Scholar, 4Dethlefsen L. Huse S. 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Studies comparing ileal tissue from germ-free (GF) and Bacteroidetes thetaiotaomicron-colonized mice have shown that microbial colonization modifies the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign compounds) as well as in host nutrient (amino acids, lipids, vitamins, and ions) absorption and processing (6Hooper L.V. Wong M.H. Thelin A. Hansson L. Falk P.G. Gordon J.I. Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine.Science. 2001; 291: 881-884Crossref PubMed Scopus (1666) Google Scholar).Evidence is now accumulating to indicate that perturbations of gut microbiota composition/functions may play an important role in the development of diseases associated with altered metabolism (11Bäckhed F. Ley R.E. Sonnenburg J.L. Peterson D.A. Gordon J.I. Host-bacterial mutualism in the human intestine.Science. 2005; 307: 1915-1920Crossref PubMed Scopus (3533) Google Scholar, 12Smith K. McCoy K.D. Macpherson A.J. 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Roe B.A. Affourtit J.P. et al.A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins.Nature. 2009; 457: 480-484Crossref PubMed Scopus (5412) Google Scholar). In contrast, the microbial diversity on species levels is very high (1Eckburg P.B. Bik E.M. Bernstein C.N. Purdom E. Dethlefsen L. Sargent M. Gill S.R. Nelson K.E. Relman D.A. Diversity of the human intestinal microbial flora.Science. 2005; 308: 1635-1638Crossref PubMed Scopus (5393) Google Scholar, 2Ley R.E. Backhed F. Turnbaugh P. Lozupone C.A. Knight R.D. Gordon J.I. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2005; 102: 11070-11075Crossref PubMed Scopus (4208) Google Scholar, 13Turnbaugh P.J. Hamady M. Yatsunenko T. Cantarel B.L. Duncan A. Ley R.E. Sogin M.L. Jones W.J. Roe B.A. Affourtit J.P. et al.A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins.Nature. 2009; 457: 480-484Crossref PubMed Scopus (5412) Google Scholar). Recent studies in both mice and humans demonstrated that obesity is associated with an altered gut microbial ecology, exemplified by lower microbial diversity and decreased levels of Bacteroidetes (2Ley R.E. Backhed F. Turnbaugh P. Lozupone C.A. Knight R.D. Gordon J.I. Obesity alters gut microbial ecology.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2005; 102: 11070-11075Crossref PubMed Scopus (4208) Google Scholar, 3Ley R.E. Turnbaugh P.J. Klein S. Gordon J.I. Microbial ecology: human gut microbes associated with obesity.Nature. 2006; 444: 1022-1023Crossref PubMed Scopus (5940) Google Scholar, 13Turnbaugh P.J. Hamady M. Yatsunenko T. Cantarel B.L. Duncan A. Ley R.E. Sogin M.L. Jones W.J. Roe B.A. Affourtit J.P. et al.A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins.Nature. 2009; 457: 480-484Crossref PubMed Scopus (5412) Google Scholar, 14Turnbaugh P.J. Backhed F. Fulton L. Gordon J.I. Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome.Cell Host Microbe. 2008; 3: 213-223Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2029) Google Scholar). The shift in microbial composition is associated with alterations in the gut microbial metagenome, notably an enrichment of genes involved in energy harvest (15Turnbaugh P.J. Ley R.E. Mahowald M.A. Magrini V. Mardis E.R. Gordon J.I. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest.Nature. 2006; 444: 1027-1031Crossref PubMed Scopus (7887) Google Scholar). Furthermore, GF mice have decreased adiposity and hepatic triglyceride levels compared with conventionally raised (CONV-R) mice and are resistant to diet-induced obesity (16Bäckhed F. Ding H. Wang T. Hooper L.V. Koh G.Y. Nagy A. Semenkovich C.F. Gordon J.I. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 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USA. 2007; 104: 979-984Crossref PubMed Scopus (1864) Google Scholar).Novel approaches are now emerging to measure and model metabolism. A powerful approach to understand host metabolism is to produce multivariate phenotypic signatures such as metabolite profiles (metabolomics). Metabolomics of plasma from GF and CONV-R mice have begun to reveal a profound microbial effect of host metabolism, especially on amino acid metabolites (18Claus S.P. Tsang T.M. Wang Y. Cloarec O. Skordi E. Martin F-P. Rezzi S. Ross A. Kochhar S. Holmes E. et al.Systemic multicompartmental effects of the gut microbiome on mouse metabolic phenotypes.Mol. Syst. Biol. 2008; 4: 219Crossref PubMed Scopus (269) Google Scholar, 19Wikoff W.R. Anfora A.T. Liu J. Schultz P.G. Lesley S.A. Peters E.C. Siuzdak G. Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2009; 106: 3698-3703Crossref PubMed Scopus (1729) Google Scholar). For example, the gut microbiota is required for the production of bioactive indole-containing metabolites, such as the antioxidant indole-3-propionic acid, from tryptophan (19Wikoff W.R. Anfora A.T. Liu J. Schultz P.G. Lesley S.A. Peters E.C. Siuzdak G. Metabolomics analysis reveals large effects of gut microflora on mammalian blood metabolites.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2009; 106: 3698-3703Crossref PubMed Scopus (1729) Google Scholar). Despite our increased understanding of how microbes affect the host metabolome (8Li M. Wang B. Zhang M. Rantalainen M. Wang S. Zhou H. Zhang Y. Shen J. Pang X. Wei H. et al.Symbiotic gut microbes modulate human metabolic phenotypes.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2008; 105: 2117-2122Crossref PubMed Scopus (850) Google Scholar, 18Claus S.P. Tsang T.M. Wang Y. Cloarec O. Skordi E. Martin F-P. Rezzi S. Ross A. Kochhar S. Holmes E. et al.Systemic multicompartmental effects of the gut microbiome on mouse metabolic phenotypes.Mol. Syst. 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Rochat F. Cherbut C. van Bladeren P. et al.Top-down systems biology integration of conditional prebiotic modulated transgenomic interactions in a humanized microbiome mouse model.Mol. Syst. Biol. 2008; 4: 205Crossref PubMed Scopus (93) Google Scholar), our knowledge of microbial modulation of host energy and lipid metabolism is limited. In particular, it is not clear how the gut microbiota affects the systemic lipid metabolism in metabolically important organs such as adipose tissue and liver. Given the complexity of systemic lipid metabolism (23Smith L.C. Pownall H.J. Gotto A.M. The plasma lipoproteins: structure and metabolism.Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1978; 47: 751-777Crossref PubMed Scopus (187) Google Scholar), it is clear that a multi-tissue approach is needed to clarify these issues.Here, we use MS-based metabolomics of serum in combination with MS-based lipidomics of serum, white adipose tissue, and liver of GF and CONV-R mice to delineate how the gut microbiota affects the host's energy and lipid metabolism. We show that the presence of a gut microbiota is reflected by increased levels of pyruvic acid and tricarboxylic acid metabolites in serum. Furthermore, we observed altered lipid metabolism in serum, white adipose tissue, and liver, with the most notable effects on triglyceride and phosphatidylcholine species.MATERIALS AND METHODSAnimalsMale GF Swiss Webster mice (aged 12–14 weeks) were maintained in flexible plastic film isolators under a strict 12-h-light cycle (lights on at 06:00 h). Sterility was routinely confirmed by culturing and PCR analysis from feces using universal primers amplifying the 16S rRNA gene. Age-matched male CONV-R Swiss Webster mice were transferred to identical isolators at weaning. Both groups of mice were fed an autoclaved chow diet (Labdiet, St. Louis, MO) ad libitum unless otherwise stated. To produce conventionalized (CONV-D) mice, we conventionalized 12-week-old GF mice with gut microbiota from Swiss Webster donor mice as previously described (16Bäckhed F. Ding H. Wang T. Hooper L.V. Koh G.Y. Nagy A. Semenkovich C.F. Gordon J.I. The gut microbiota as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2004; 101: 15718-15723Crossref PubMed Scopus (4181) Google Scholar). The study protocols were approved by the University of Gothenburg Animal Studies Committee.Blood was collected from the vena cava under deep isoflurane anesthesia after a 4 h fast, unless otherwise stated, and the mice were subsequently euthanized by cervical dislocation. The liver and epididymal white adipose tissues were immediately removed and snap frozen in liquid nitrogen.Metabolomic analyses using GC coupled to time-of-flight MS platformSerum samples (30 µl) were combined with 10 µl of an internal standard, labeled palmitic acid (16:0-16,16,16d3; 500 mg/l), and 400 µl of methanol, vortexed for 2 min, and incubated for 30 min at room temperature. The supernatant was separated by centrifugation at 5,590 g for 5 min at room temperature. The sample was dried under constant flow of nitrogen. Twenty-five microliters of 2% methoxyamine hydrochloride in pyridine was added to the dried sample and incubated at 45°C for 1 h and then derivatized with 25 µl of N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide by incubating at 45°C for 1 h. Five microliters of retention index standard mixture with five alkanes (400 mg/l) was added to the metabolite mixture. Sample order for analysis was established by randomization. The samples were analyzed on a Leco Pegasus 4D GC coupled to time-of-flight MS (GCxGC-ToF/MS) mass spectrometer with Agilent technologies 6890N GC and Combi PAL autosampler.The metabolites were identified using an in-house reference compound library and by searching the reference mass spectral library. Mass spectra from the GCxGC-TOF/MS analysis were searched against the Palisade Complete Mass Spectral Library, 600K Edition (Palisade Mass Spectrometry, Ithaca, NY), which includes all spectra available from the NIST 2002 and Wiley registry collections and 150,000 other spectra. The matches to reference spectra are based on a weighted dot product of the two spectra, with higher m/z peaks having more weight than the lower. A similarity value is assigned between 0 and 999, with 999 being a perfect match and 750 generally considered as a reasonable match. We used the conservative cutoff criterion of 850 for identification.Lipidomic analyses using ultra performance liquid chromatography/MS platformSerum (10 µl) and liver samples (5–10 mg) were diluted with 0.9% NaCl (10 µl for serum, 50 µl for liver) and adipose tissue samples (5–10 mg) were diluted with 200 µl PBS buffer. All samples were spiked with an internal standard (10 µl for serum and liver, 20 µl for adipose) (24Laaksonen R. Katajamaa M. Paiva H. Sysi-Aho M. Saarinen L. Junni P. Lutjohann D. Smet J. Van Coster R. Seppanen-Laakso T. et al.A systems biology strategy reveals biological pathways and plasma biomarker candidates for potentially toxic statin-induced changes in muscle.PLoS One. 2006; 1: e97Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar). The samples were subsequently extracted with chloroform-methanol (2:1) solvent (100 µl for serum, 200 µl for liver, 400 µl with 40 µl of PBS buffer for adipose), homogenized with a glass rod (serum) or a Retsch homogenizer (Mixer MILL type MM301) for 2 min at 25 Hz (liver) or 20 Hz (adipose) at 4°C by adding two zirconium oxide grinding balls, vortexed (1 min for serum, 2 min for liver and adipose), incubated at room temperature (1 h for serum and adipose, 30 min for liver), and centrifuged at 5,590 g for 3 min. From the separated lower phase, an aliquot (60 µl for serum, 100 µl for liver, 200 µl for adipose) was mixed with a labeled standard mixture (three stable isotope-labeled reference compounds; 10 μl for serum and liver, 20 µl for adipose) and 0.5–1.0 μl injection was used for LC/MS analysis. Sample order for analysis was established by randomization. Lipid extracts were analyzed on a Q-ToF Premier mass spectrometer (Waters) combined with an Acquity ultra performance liquid chromatography/MS (for specific settings, see Supplementary Methods).ModelingTo include the correlation structure of lipidomics data into the analysis and therefore explore possible associations between different lipid molecular species, we applied the partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS/DA) (25Geladi P. Kowalski B.R. Partial least-squares regression: a tutorial.Anal. Chim. Acta. 1986; 185: 1-17Crossref Scopus (5565) Google Scholar, 26Barker M. Rayens W. Partial least squares for discrimination.J. Chemometr. 2003; 17: 166-173Crossref Scopus (1958) Google Scholar) using the SIMPLS algorithm to calculate the model (27de Jong S. SIMPLS: an alternative approach to partial least squares regression.Chemom. Intell. Lab. Syst. 1993; 18: 251-263Crossref Scopus (1403) Google Scholar). PLS/DA is a common approach to multivariate metabolomics data analysis (28Pears M.R. Cooper J.D. Mitchison H.M. Mortishire-Smith R.J. Pearce D.A. Griffin J.L. High resolution 1H NMR-based metabolomics indicates a neurotransmitter cycling deficit in cerebral tissue from a mouse model of Batten Disease.J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 42508-42514Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (128) Google Scholar, 29Brindle J.T. Antti H. Holmes E. Tranter G. Nicholson J.K. Bethell H.W.L. Clarke S. Schofield P.M. McKilligin E. Mosedale D.E. et al.Rapid and noninvasive diagnosis of the presence and severity of coronary heart disease using 1H-NMR-based metabonomics.Nat. Med. 2002; 8: 1439-1445Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). PLS/DA analysis maximizes the product of variance matrix of measured variables (e.g., lipidomic profile data) and correlation of measured data with properties of interest (e.g., CONV-R vs. GF mice). PLS/DA makes latent variables of original matrix X (predictor variable, e.g., lipidomics data) and matrix Y (response variable; e.g., mouse groups). Latent variables are formed as a linear combination of all the original variables in X in such a way that most of the association with Y variables can be explained together with the variation in X. Contiguous-blocks cross-validation method and Q2 scores were used to develop the models (30Wise B.M. Gallagher N.B. Bro R. Shaver J.M. Windig W. Koch J.S. PLS Toolbox 4.0 for Use with Matlab. Eigenvector Research Inc, Manson, WA2006Google Scholar). Q2 indicates how accurately the data, either classed or nonclassed, can be predicted, and this term is more relevant to supervised pattern recognition processes. Q2 scores over 0.08 indicate a model that is better than chance, whereas a score between 0.7 and 1.0 demonstrates a highly robust trend. For each model built, the loading scores and the variable importance on projection (VIP) parameters were examined, in conjunction with the original data, to identify which metabolites contributed most to clusterings or a trend observed in the data. Loading scores describe the correlation between the original variables and the new component variables, whereas VIP parameters are essentially a measure of the degree to which a particular variable explains the Y variance (class membership). PLS/DA analyses were performed using Matlab, version 7.5 (Mathworks, Natick, MA) and PLS Toolbox, version 4.2, of the Matlab package (Eigenvector Research, Wenatchee, WA).Measurements of serum lipidsTotal serum triglycerides and cholesterol were analyzed according to the manufacturer's protocols (Thermo Electron, Grenoble, France). The lipid distribution in plasma lipoprotein fractions was assessed by fast protein liquid chromatography gel filtration with a Superose 6 HR 10/30 column (Pharmacia, Uppsala, Sweden). Each fraction was subsequently analyzed for triglyceride or cholesterol content as above. Plasma lipoproteins were also separated by agarose gel electrophoresis (31Young S.G. Bertics S.J. Curtiss L.K. Witztum J.L. Characterization of an abnormal species of apolipoprotein B, apolipoprotein B-37, associated with familial hypobetalipoproteinemia.J. Clin. Invest. 1987; 79: 1831-1841Crossref PubMed Scopus (65) Google Scholar) and the chylomicron staining was quantified by densitometry.Hepatic VLDL productionTo determine the VLDL production rate, lipolysis was blocked by injecting mice with 12.5 mg of Triton WR1339 (10% solution in saline) intravenously after an overnight fast. Blood samples were drawn from the tail vein at 0, 10, 30, 60, and 90 min after injection. Triglycerides were measured using an enzymatic colorimetric assay (Thermo Electron, Grenoble, France) according to the manufacturer's protocol.Administration of lipid bolusMice were gavaged with 400 µl heavy whipping cream (36% fat, Arla, Sweden) after an overnight fast and euthanized 1 or 4 h after the lipid bolus. Serum was collected and triglycerides were measured as above.StatisticsStudent's t-test was applied to test for pairwise differences between the means, single factor ANOVA was applied to test for differences among means, and Dunn-Sidák multiple comparison procedure was applied to identify which means were significantly different, using the multcompare function of the MATLAB Statistical Toolbox. P values < 0.05 were considered as statistically significant. False Discovery Rate or the expected proportion of false discoveries among the rejected hypotheses was estimated using the method by Benjamini et al. (32Benjamini Y. Drai D. Elmer G. Kafkafi N. Golani I. Controlling the false discovery rate in behavior genetics research.Behav. Brain Res. 2001; 125: 279-284Crossref PubMed Scopus (2644) Google Scholar). The adjusted P values (q-values) were calculated with the function “p.adjust” using the R statistical software (http://www.r-project.org/).RESULTSThe gut microbiota affects the serum metabolomeWe performed MS-based metabolic profiling of serum from CONV-R and GF Swiss Webster mice after a 4 h fast by using two-dimensional GC coupled to time-of-flight MS (GCxGC-ToF/MS) and identified 185 metabolites. Modeling and clustering by PLS/DA revealed that serum metabolite profiles clustered according to colonization status (Fig. 1A, corresponding VIP values are listed in supplementary Table I, and all 29 metabolites that are significantly altered in CONV-R compared with GF mice are listed in supplementary Table II).As expected, we observed increased levels of the microbially derived metabolites and metabolites involved in xenobiotic metabolism in serum from CONV-R mice (Fig. 1B). 3-Hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, a product of catechin metabolism (33Bazzocco S. Mattila I. Guyot S. Renard C. Aura A-M. Factors affecting the conversion of apple polyphenols to phenolic acids and fruit matrix to short-chain fatty acids by human faecal microbiota in vitro.Eur. J. Nutr. 2008; 47: 442-452Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar), and hydrocinnamic acid (or benzenepropanoic acid), which is produced by clostridium species (34Moss C.W. Lambert M.A. Goldsmith D.J. Production of hydrocinnamic acid by clostridia.Appl. Microbiol. 1970; 19: 375-378Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), were elevated in CONV-R mice. In addition, we observed increases in rhamnose, a component of the outer cell membrane of acid-fast bacteria in the mycobacterium genus (35Tashjian Jr., A.H. Armstrong E.J. Galanter J.N. Armstrong A.W. Arnaout R.A. Rose H.S. Pharmacology of the bacterial cell wall.in: Golan D.E. In Principles of Pharmacology: The Pathophysiologic Basis of Drug Therapy. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore2005: 569Google Scholar) (Fig. 1B). These findings demonstrate that the host serum metabolite profile reflects microbial metabolism in the intestine. Serum levels of glucuronic acid, which is associated with phase II (conjugation) metabolism of xenobiotic compounds (36Tukey R.H. Strassburg C.P. Human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases: metabolism, expression, and disease.Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2000; 40: 581-616Crossref PubMed Scopus (1277) Google Scholar), were also increased in CONV-R mice compared with CONV-R mice (Fig. 1B). This increase is consistent with increased expression of Ugt2b38 in the liver (R. Hezaveh, C. Reigstad, P. Gopalacharyulu, M. Oresic, F. Bäckhed, unpublished data).The gut microbiota also promoted increases in the serum levels of pyruvic acid and the tricarboxylic acid metabolites citric acid, fumaric acid, and mails acid (all metabolites involved in energy metabolism) and reduced serum levels of urea and the urea cycle metabolite l-ornithine (Fig. 1B). Serum levels of several essential cellular building blocks, including sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids, were also modified. In particular, serum from CONV-R mice had decreased levels of long-chain fatty acids [the saturated fatty acid palmitic acid (16:0) and the unsaturated essential fatty acid linoleic acid (18:2n-6)] and cholesterol, and increased levels of the dietary phytosterol campesterol and glucose (Fig. 1B). We also identified increased serum levels of the monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine and tyramine and of trans- 2-aminomethylcyclopropanecarboxylic acid, a cyclopropane analog of γ-aminobutyric acid, in CONV-R mice (Fig. 1B).The gut microbiota affects the serum lipidomeTo investigate in further detail how the gut microbiota affects the serum lipidome, we performed high-resolution lipidomics of serum from CONV-R and GF mice after a 4 h fast using ultra performance liquid chromatography/MS. This technology allows several hundred lipid species to be simultaneously and accurately analyzed (24Laaksonen R. Katajamaa M. Paiva H. Sysi-Aho M. Saarinen L. Junni P. Lutjohann D. Smet J. Van Coster R. Seppanen-Laakso T. et al.A systems biology strategy reveals biological pathways and plasma biomarker candidates for potentially toxic statin-induced changes in muscle.PLoS One. 2006; 1: e97Crossref PubMed Scopus (194) Google Scholar). We identified and quantified 333 lipids in serum from CONV-R and GF mice, and PLS/DA modeling and clustering revealed significant differences in the global serum lipid profiles between CONV-R and GF mice (Fig. 2A; corresponding VIP values are listed in supplementary Table III, and all significantly altered lipid species are listed in supplementary Table IV).Fig. 2Serum lipidomic profiles in CONV-R compared with GF mice. A: PLS/DA of serum lipids from GF (n = 8) and CONV-R (n = 5) mice after a 4 h fast. Scores for latent variable LV1 and sample are depicted. Regression coefficients and VIP scores for the top ranked lipids are listed in supplementary Table III. B-E: Absolute concentrations of the most abundant cholesteryl esters (ChoE), sphingomyelins (SM), phosphatidylcholines (PC), and triglycerides (TG) in serum from GF and CONV-R mice. For a complete list of microbially altered serum lipids, see supplementary Table IV. Data are expressed as mean values ± SEM. ∗ P < 0.05; ∗∗ P < 0.01; and ∗∗∗ P < 0.001 compared with GF mice.View Large Image Fi