Article13 March 2007Open Access Large-scale mapping of human protein–protein interactions by mass spectrometry Rob M Ewing Rob M Ewing Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Peter Chu Peter Chu Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Fred Elisma Fred Elisma Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Hongyan Li Hongyan Li Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Paul Taylor Paul Taylor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Hospital for Sick Children and McLaughlin Centre for Molecular Medicine, and Department of Medical Genetics and Microbiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Shane Climie Shane Climie Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Popper and Company LLC, Sarasota, FL, USA Search for more papers by this author Linda McBroom-Cerajewski Linda McBroom-Cerajewski Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Mark D Robinson Mark D Robinson Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Genetics and Bioinformatics, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research (WEHI), Parkville, Victoria, Australia Search for more papers by this author Liam O'Connor Liam O'Connor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael Li Michael Li Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Platform Computing, Markham, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Rod Taylor Rod Taylor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Moyez Dharsee Moyez Dharsee Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yuen Ho Yuen Ho Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Banting and Best Department of Medical Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Adrian Heilbut Adrian Heilbut Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: CombinatoRx Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Lynda Moore Lynda Moore Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, BC Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Search for more papers by this author Shudong Zhang Shudong Zhang Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Olga Ornatsky Olga Ornatsky Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yury V Bukhman Yury V Bukhman Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Martin Ethier Martin Ethier Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yinglun Sheng Yinglun Sheng Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Julian Vasilescu Julian Vasilescu Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Mohamed Abu-Farha Mohamed Abu-Farha Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Jean-Philippe Lambert Jean-Philippe Lambert Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Henry S Duewel Henry S Duewel Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, St Louis, MO, USA Search for more papers by this author Ian I Stewart Ian I Stewart Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Bonnie Kuehl Bonnie Kuehl Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Scientific Insights Consulting Group Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Kelly Hogue Kelly Hogue Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Advanced Protein Technology Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Karen Colwill Karen Colwill Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Katharine Gladwish Katharine Gladwish Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Brenda Muskat Brenda Muskat Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: MDS Pharma Services, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Robert Kinach Robert Kinach Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Sally-Lin Adams Sally-Lin Adams Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Division of Haematology/Oncology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Michael F Moran Michael F Moran Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Hospital for Sick Children and McLaughlin Centre for Molecular Medicine, and Department of Medical Genetics and Microbiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Gregg B Morin Gregg B Morin Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, BC Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Search for more papers by this author Thodoros Topaloglou Thodoros Topaloglou Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Information Engineering Center, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Daniel Figeys Corresponding Author Daniel Figeys Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Rob M Ewing Rob M Ewing Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Peter Chu Peter Chu Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Fred Elisma Fred Elisma Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Hongyan Li Hongyan Li Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Department of Biology, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Paul Taylor Paul Taylor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Hospital for Sick Children and McLaughlin Centre for Molecular Medicine, and Department of Medical Genetics and Microbiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Shane Climie Shane Climie Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Popper and Company LLC, Sarasota, FL, USA Search for more papers by this author Linda McBroom-Cerajewski Linda McBroom-Cerajewski Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Mark D Robinson Mark D Robinson Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Genetics and Bioinformatics, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research (WEHI), Parkville, Victoria, Australia Search for more papers by this author Liam O'Connor Liam O'Connor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Michael Li Michael Li Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Platform Computing, Markham, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Rod Taylor Rod Taylor Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Moyez Dharsee Moyez Dharsee Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yuen Ho Yuen Ho Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Banting and Best Department of Medical Research, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Adrian Heilbut Adrian Heilbut Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: CombinatoRx Inc, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Lynda Moore Lynda Moore Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, BC Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Search for more papers by this author Shudong Zhang Shudong Zhang Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Olga Ornatsky Olga Ornatsky Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yury V Bukhman Yury V Bukhman Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer Research, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Martin Ethier Martin Ethier Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Yinglun Sheng Yinglun Sheng Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Julian Vasilescu Julian Vasilescu Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Mohamed Abu-Farha Mohamed Abu-Farha Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Jean-Philippe Lambert Jean-Philippe Lambert Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Henry S Duewel Henry S Duewel Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, St Louis, MO, USA Search for more papers by this author Ian I Stewart Ian I Stewart Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Bonnie Kuehl Bonnie Kuehl Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Scientific Insights Consulting Group Inc., Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Kelly Hogue Kelly Hogue Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Advanced Protein Technology Centre, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Karen Colwill Karen Colwill Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Katharine Gladwish Katharine Gladwish Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Brenda Muskat Brenda Muskat Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: MDS Pharma Services, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Robert Kinach Robert Kinach Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Sally-Lin Adams Sally-Lin Adams Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Division of Haematology/Oncology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Michael F Moran Michael F Moran Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Hospital for Sick Children and McLaughlin Centre for Molecular Medicine, and Department of Medical Genetics and Microbiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Gregg B Morin Gregg B Morin Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, CanadaPresent address: Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre, BC Cancer Agency Genome Sciences Centre, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Search for more papers by this author Thodoros Topaloglou Thodoros Topaloglou Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Information Engineering Center, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Daniel Figeys Corresponding Author Daniel Figeys Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Search for more papers by this author Author Information Rob M Ewing1,2, Peter Chu1, Fred Elisma3, Hongyan Li1, Paul Taylor1, Shane Climie1, Linda McBroom-Cerajewski1, Mark D Robinson1, Liam O'Connor1, Michael Li1, Rod Taylor1, Moyez Dharsee1,2, Yuen Ho1, Adrian Heilbut1, Lynda Moore1, Shudong Zhang1, Olga Ornatsky1, Yury V Bukhman1, Martin Ethier3, Yinglun Sheng3, Julian Vasilescu3, Mohamed Abu-Farha3, Jean-Philippe Lambert3, Henry S Duewel1, Ian I Stewart1,2, Bonnie Kuehl1, Kelly Hogue1, Karen Colwill1, Katharine Gladwish1, Brenda Muskat1, Robert Kinach1, Sally-Lin Adams1, Michael F Moran1, Gregg B Morin1, Thodoros Topaloglou1,4 and Daniel Figeys 1,3 1Protana (now Transition Therapeutics), Toronto, Ontario, Canada 2Infochromics, MaRS Discovery District, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 3Faculty of Medicine, The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada 4Information Engineering Center, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada *Corresponding author. The Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, University of Ottawa, BMI, 451 Smyth Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1H 8M5. Tel.: +1 613 562 5800 ext 8674; Fax: +1 613 562 5655; E-mail: [email protected] Molecular Systems Biology (2007)3:89https://doi.org/10.1038/msb4100134 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions Figures & Info Mapping protein–protein interactions is an invaluable tool for understanding protein function. Here, we report the first large-scale study of protein–protein interactions in human cells using a mass spectrometry-based approach. The study maps protein interactions for 338 bait proteins that were selected based on known or suspected disease and functional associations. Large-scale immunoprecipitation of Flag-tagged versions of these proteins followed by LC-ESI-MS/MS analysis resulted in the identification of 24 540 potential protein interactions. False positives and redundant hits were filtered out using empirical criteria and a calculated interaction confidence score, producing a data set of 6463 interactions between 2235 distinct proteins. This data set was further cross-validated using previously published and predicted human protein interactions. In-depth mining of the data set shows that it represents a valuable source of novel protein–protein interactions with relevance to human diseases. In addition, via our preliminary analysis, we report many novel protein interactions and pathway associations. Synopsis Understanding the roles and consequences of protein–protein interactions is a fundamental goal in cellular biology and a prerequisite for the development of molecular systems biology. The endeavor of cataloging protein interactions is primarily hindered by the throughput and reproducibility of existing technologies. Different techniques for mapping protein interactions are available, such as the two-hybrid approach (Chien et al, 1991) and the LUMIER approach (Barrios-Rodiles et al, 2005) and assay whether two proteins interact in a pair-wise fashion. We have developed a high-throughput platform combining immunoprecipitation and high-throughput mass spectrometry (IP-HTMS) to rapidly identify potentially novel protein interactions for a bait protein of interest. We (Ho et al, 2002) and others (Gavin et al, 2002) previously used this approach to map protein–protein interactions in yeast, creating invaluable data sets for yeast biology and extrapolation into mammalian biology. Mapping protein interactions in human cells has its own set of challenges owing to the number of potentially expressed genes, the number of different cell types, and the numbers of internal and external factors that impact the cellular system. Although a complete mapping of the human interactome is still beyond current capabilities, more focused studies are possible. Here we report the first large-scale application of IP-HTMS to the mapping of protein–protein interactions in human cells using 338 human bait proteins of significant biomedical interest. The complete data set is available from the Intact database (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/intact/site/) (accession EBI-1059370) or as a table of bait–prey pairs with associated confidence values (Supplementary Table II). There has been much focus and discussion over the last few years on the quality and reproducibility of interactions in high-throughput protein–protein interaction datasets (e.g. von Mering et al, 2002). A guiding principle in our study has therefore been to implement stringent quality controls. The final data set includes protein interactions for 338 human bait proteins (Supplementary Table I). For over half of these baits, two or more replicate immunoprecipitation experiments were performed, requiring a total of 1034 individual immunoprecipitation experiments with associated SDS–PAGE. These experiments yielded over 16 000 gel bands for which over 400 000 MS/MS spectra were assigned peptide sequences. Approximately 1/5 of our immunoprecipitation experiments were control (no-bait) experiments allowing us to build a comprehensive list of spurious and ubiquitously binding proteins that could then be filtered out of the interaction network. Another 1/5 of the experiments were directed towards a study of the reproducibility of prey protein identification using our platform. These 202 immunoprecipitation experiments, derived from 18 baits, were used to train a statistical model that associates interaction reproducibility with various observed experimental parameters, such as the number of peptides identified for the given prey protein. This model was used to assign confidence values (taking a value between 0 and 1) to each of the 6486 interactions in the data set. As the interaction confidence score is calculated solely from IP-HTMS experimental parameters, an initial focus was to confirm that the confidence score was an accurate means of ranking the interactions for further study. We observed, for example, that known interactions in the data set have, on average, significantly higher interaction confidence scores. For example, the set of baits corresponding to core and regulatory components of the proteasome enabled reconstruction of a proteasome interaction network (Figure 6C), comprising many known proteasome components and enriched for high-scoring interactions. We also integrated the IP-HTMS data set with several other genomic-scale data including other protein–protein interaction data sets, gene co-expression data, and annotations from the gene ontology project. In the latter case, we analyzed the frequency of co-occurrence of both bait and prey protein in the same biological process or cellular component category (Figure 3). We find that there is significant enrichment of bait–prey pairs sharing the same annotation category, indicating a strong tendency for bait proteins to bind prey proteins with related functions. Integration with gene co-expression data showed that interaction data sets, this one included, are enriched for gene pairs that are co-expressed. This enabled identification of tightly clustered sets of protein interactors that are also co-expressed at the mRNA level. For example, the LYAR bait protein (Ly1 antibody reactive clone) is a nucleolar protein of unknown function (Su et al, 1993). This bait identified a set of nucleolar-localized prey proteins that are also very tightly co-expressed (Figure 5). These results along with the other protein–protein interaction data sources provided a powerful means of cross-validating the human IP-HTMS data set and associated methodology. Our focus in this paper has been to prepare a quality-controlled, large-scale human protein interaction data set that will add significantly to our knowledge of the human protein interactome. Given the focus on baits of significant biomedical interest (through functional or disease associations), we anticipate that this data set alongside other sources of human protein–protein interactions will be an important starting point for functional characterization of disease-related interactions and complexes. The IP-HTMS platform utilized here shows great promise as an effective means of protein interaction discovery and we anticipate that future applications will include broadening to a larger set of disease associated proteins, to other cell lines and coupling with drug treatments. Introduction Biomolecular interactions play a critical role in the vast majority of cellular processes. Understanding the roles and consequences of protein interactions is fundamental for the development of systems biology as well as the development of novel therapeutics. Our current knowledge of biomolecular interactions in terms of cataloging interactions and understanding their biophysical properties is still very limited and is hindered by the limitations (primarily throughput and reproducibility) of existing technologies. Different techniques for mapping protein interactions, such as the yeast two-hybrid approach (Y2H) (Chien et al, 1991) and the LUMIER approach (Barrios-Rodiles et al, 2005), are available, and address the question of whether two proteins interact in a pairwise fashion. We have developed a high-throughput platform combining immunoprecipitation and high-throughput mass spectrometry (IP-HTMS) to rapidly identify potentially novel protein interactions for a bait protein of interest. We (Ho et al, 2002) and others (Gavin et al, 2002) previously used this approach to map protein–protein interactions in yeast, creating invaluable data sets for yeast biology and extrapolation into mammalian biology. We have since extended this approach to the high-throughput mapping of protein–protein interactions in humans and refined the computational processing with new methodology to assign a confidence score to each interaction. Mapping protein interactions in human cells has its own set of challenges owing to the number of potentially expressed genes, the number of different cell types and the numbers of internal and external factors that impact the cellular system. Although a complete mapping of the human interactome is still beyond current capabilities, more focused studies are possible. For example, application of IP-HTMS on a smaller scale was used to study the human TNF-alpha/NF-kappa B signal transduction pathway (Bouwmeester et al, 2004). On a more global scale, the Y2H system has recently been applied to study pairwise human interactions (Rual et al, 2005; Stelzl et al, 2005). Here, we report the first large-scale application of IP-HTMS to the mapping of protein–protein interactions in human cells using 338 human bait proteins of significant biomedical interest. The complete data set is provided as a table of bait–prey pairs with associated confidence values (Supplementary Table II) and in PSI-MI (Hermjakob et al, 2004) format from the Intact database (www.ebi.ac.uk/intact), accession EBI-1059370. Results and discussion Bait selection and analytical processing An initial set of 407 human bait proteins was selected based on known or implied disease associations and functional annotation. These proteins are implicated in a diverse set of biological processes and pathways. The most well-represented biological process categories among the set of baits are protein modification, cell cycle, transcription and signal transduction, reflecting the choice of bait proteins that are fundamental to essential cellular processes. Many of the baits also have known disease associations, the most well represented being breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes and obesity, reflecting our objective to target important human diseases. Approximately 10% of the baits selected were hypothetical or poorly annotated proteins, chosen in some cases for their homology to proteins with disease or functional associations of interest. The data set reported here maps interactions for 338 of the initial set of bait proteins. A complete listing of the bait proteins and a representative biological process from the Gene Ontology (GO) (Ashburner et al, 2000), where available, is provided in Supplementary Table I. (See Supplementary Information for further details on bait selection and disease associations.) Analytical processing and mass spectrometry were carried out as described in Materials and methods. In total, 1034 individual immunoprecipitation experiments were resolved by SDS–PAGE, and proteins visualized by colloidal Coomassie stain. Processing of the corresponding gel lanes yielded 16 321 gel bands that were processed by mass spectrometry generating over 400 000 MS/MS spectra that matched a peptide sequence in the database. For over half of the baits, replicated immunoprecipitation experiments were performed. Figure 1 shows a breakdown of the total set of experiments by type. Figure 1.Data processing summary. Pie chart showing categorization of all immunoprecipitation experiments by type. Download figure Download PowerPoint Prey identification, scoring and filtering As shown in Figure 1, our data set consists of both replicated and single-pass immunoprecipitation experiments. An additional level of redundancy arises from the fact that prey proteins may or may not be restricted to single-gel bands in a given lane. We, therefore, devised a data-processing pipeline that would consolidate, organize and remove redundancy and provide us with an accurate master list of the prey proteins identified for each bait. Figure 2 provides an overview of this process. H