The majority of disulfide-linked cytosolic proteins are thought to be enzymes that transiently form disulfide bonds while catalyzing oxidation-reduction (redox) processes. Recent evidence indicates that reactive oxygen species can act as signaling molecules by promoting the formation of disulfide bonds within or between select redox-sensitive proteins. However, few studies have attempted to examine global changes in disulfide bond formation following reactive oxygen species exposure. Here we isolate and identify disulfide-bonded proteins (DSBP) in a mammalian neuronal cell line (HT22) exposed to various oxidative insults by sequential nonreducing/reducing two-dimensional SDS-PAGE combined with mass spectrometry. By using this strategy, several known cytosolic DSBP, such as peroxiredoxins, thioredoxin reductase, nucleoside-diphosphate kinase, and ribonucleotide-diphosphate reductase, were identified. Unexpectedly, a large number of previously unknown DSBP were also found, including those involved in molecular chaperoning, translation, glycolysis, cytoskeletal structure, cell growth, and signal transduction. Treatment of cells with a wide range of hydrogen peroxide concentrations either promoted or inhibited disulfide bonding of select DSBP in a concentration-dependent manner. Decreasing the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione also promoted select disulfide bond formation within proteins from cytoplasmic extracts. In addition, an epitope-tagged version of the molecular chaperone HSP70 forms mixed disulfides with both β4-spectrin and adenomatous polyposis coli protein in the cytosol. Our findings indicate that disulfide bond formation within families of cytoplasmic proteins is dependent on the nature of the oxidative insult and may provide a common mechanism used to control multiple physiological processes. The majority of disulfide-linked cytosolic proteins are thought to be enzymes that transiently form disulfide bonds while catalyzing oxidation-reduction (redox) processes. Recent evidence indicates that reactive oxygen species can act as signaling molecules by promoting the formation of disulfide bonds within or between select redox-sensitive proteins. However, few studies have attempted to examine global changes in disulfide bond formation following reactive oxygen species exposure. Here we isolate and identify disulfide-bonded proteins (DSBP) in a mammalian neuronal cell line (HT22) exposed to various oxidative insults by sequential nonreducing/reducing two-dimensional SDS-PAGE combined with mass spectrometry. By using this strategy, several known cytosolic DSBP, such as peroxiredoxins, thioredoxin reductase, nucleoside-diphosphate kinase, and ribonucleotide-diphosphate reductase, were identified. Unexpectedly, a large number of previously unknown DSBP were also found, including those involved in molecular chaperoning, translation, glycolysis, cytoskeletal structure, cell growth, and signal transduction. Treatment of cells with a wide range of hydrogen peroxide concentrations either promoted or inhibited disulfide bonding of select DSBP in a concentration-dependent manner. Decreasing the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione also promoted select disulfide bond formation within proteins from cytoplasmic extracts. In addition, an epitope-tagged version of the molecular chaperone HSP70 forms mixed disulfides with both β4-spectrin and adenomatous polyposis coli protein in the cytosol. Our findings indicate that disulfide bond formation within families of cytoplasmic proteins is dependent on the nature of the oxidative insult and may provide a common mechanism used to control multiple physiological processes. Oxidative stress occurs when the rate of reactive oxygen species (ROS) 1The abbreviations used are: ROS, reactive oxygen species; Prot-SSG, protein mixed disulfide; DSBP, disulfide-bonded proteins; IA, iodoacetamide; TRX, thioredoxin; Prx I, peroxiredoxin I; NDPK-B, nucleoside-diphosphate kinase B; H2O2, hydrogen peroxide; redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE, nonreducing/reducing two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; MALDI-TOF, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-or-flight; MS/MS, tandem mass spectrometry; DTT, dithiothreitol; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; APC, adenomatous polyposis coli; MES, 4-morpholineethanesulfonic acid; DTT, dithiothreitol; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PIPES, 1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid; EF, elongation factor. generation exceeds the detoxification abilities of the cell, and it has been implicated in many degenerative diseases. It is frequently argued that ROS cause relatively nonspecific damage to vital cellular components such as lipids, DNA, and proteins. However, emerging evidence indicates that ROS can cause specific protein modifications that may lead to a change in the activity or function of the oxidized protein (1Maher P. Schubert D. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2000; 57: 1287-1305Crossref PubMed Scopus (164) Google Scholar, 2Finkel T. Holbrook N.J. Nature. 2000; 408: 239-247Crossref PubMed Scopus (7426) Google Scholar). Several major forms of oxidative modifications can occur on amino acid residue side chains including carbonylation, nitrosylation, and oxidation of methionine to methionine sulfoxide (3Stadtman E.R. Levine R.L. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2000; 899: 191-208Crossref PubMed Scopus (977) Google Scholar). Protein sulfhydryls can be oxidized to protein disulfides and sulfenic acids as well as more highly oxidized states such as the sulfinic and sulfonic acid forms of protein cysteines (4Thomas J.A. Mallis R.J. Exp. Gerontol. 2001; 36: 1519-1526Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar). Under non-stressed conditions, disulfide bond formation occurs primarily in the oxidizing environment of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in eukaryotic cells (5Sevier C.S. Kaiser C.A. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 3: 836-847Crossref PubMed Scopus (586) Google Scholar). The sulfhydryl groups in the vast majority of protein cysteine residues (Cys-SH) have a pKa >8.0 and, in the reducing environment of the cytoplasm, remain protonated at physiological pH. Thus, cytoplasmic proteins, in general, do not contain disulfide bonds (6Rietsch A. Beckwith J. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1998; 32: 163-184Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar). However, certain redox-sensitive proteins possess cysteine residues that exist as thiolate anions at neutral pH due to a lowering of their pKa values by charge interactions with neighboring amino acid residues and are therefore more vulnerable to oxidation (6Rietsch A. Beckwith J. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1998; 32: 163-184Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar). Many redox-sensitive proteins form transient disulfide bonds while catalyzing the reduction of thiol groups (6Rietsch A. Beckwith J. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1998; 32: 163-184Crossref PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar). There are two major thiol-reducing systems in the cytoplasm. The first system makes use of the abundant cysteine-containing tripeptide glutathione (GSH) to reduce disulfide bonds via a thiol-disulfide interchange catalyzed by glutaredoxin (7Mannervik B. Axelsson K. Sundewall A.C. Holmgren A. Biochem. J. 1983; 213: 519-523Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar). In the second system, the reduced form of thioredoxin (TRX) binds to substrate proteins containing a disulfide bond, and a dithioldisulfide exchange reaction occurs in which the active site cysteine residues of TRX are oxidized, whereas the cysteine residues in the substrate protein are reduced (8Arner E.S. Holmgren A. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 6102-6109Crossref PubMed Scopus (2026) Google Scholar). During severe oxidative stress both systems can be overwhelmed or inactivated, leaving cytosolic cysteine residues susceptible to oxidation. Recently, a number of studies in bacteria and yeast have shown that oxidative stress-induced disulfide bond formation appears to be the main mechanism to adjust the protein activity of the transcription factors OxyR and YAP1 and the molecular chaperone HSP33 (reviewed in Ref. 9Linke K. Jakob U. Antioxid. Redox. Signal. 2003; 5: 425-434Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar). Reversible oxidation of redox-sensitive proteins has also been shown to regulate signal transduction and gene expression in mammalian cells (reviewed in Ref. 10Rhee S.G. Bae Y.S. Lee S.R. Kwon J. Science's STKE. 2000; http://www.stke.org/cgi/content/full/OC_sigtrans;2000/53/pe1PubMed Google Scholar). Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a relatively mild oxidant implicated in both oxidative stress and cell signaling, can oxidize cysteine sulfhydryl groups to a cysteine sulfenic acid (Cys-SOH) or disulfide bonds (4Thomas J.A. Mallis R.J. Exp. Gerontol. 2001; 36: 1519-1526Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar). The active site cysteine residue of protein-tyrosine phosphatases has been shown to be reversibly oxidized to a sulfenic acid by H2O2 (11Denu J.M. Tanner K.G. Biochemistry. 1998; 37: 5633-5642Crossref PubMed Scopus (828) Google Scholar, 12Chiarugi P. Cirri P. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2003; 28: 509-514Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (299) Google Scholar). In addition, tumor necrosis factor-α-induced signaling generates ROS that promote the oxidation of the active site residues of TRX. Oxidation of TRX results in its dissociation from apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and the subsequent activation of ASK1 (13Liu H. Nishitoh H. Ichijo H. Kyriakis J.M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000; 20: 2198-2208Crossref PubMed Scopus (450) Google Scholar). Thus, an increase in intracellular ROS as a result of exposure to environmental stimuli, including cytokines, growth factors, radiation, and chemical agents, can lead to oxidation of cysteine residues within cytoplasmic redox-sensitive proteins, such as kinases and phosphatases, ultimately affecting signal transduction processes. However, the actual number and type of redox-sensitive proteins that undergo reversible cysteine oxidation is, for the most part, unknown. Relatively few methods exist for examining disulfide bond formation within cells. A technique termed diagonal SDS-PAGE was originally used to analyze intermolecular disulfide bonds artificially generated between ribosomal proteins in Escherichia coli (14Sommer A. Traut R.R. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1974; 71: 3946-3950Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar). In diagonal SDS-PAGE, oxidized proteins are separated in the first dimension by electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions and in the second dimension under reducing conditions. This technique has successfully been adapted to monitor mixed disulfide bond formation during the folding of newly synthesized proteins in the ER (15Molinari M. Helenius A. Nature. 1999; 402: 90-93Crossref PubMed Scopus (274) Google Scholar, 16Molinari M. Helenius A. Science. 2000; 288: 331-333Crossref PubMed Scopus (289) Google Scholar). By using a well characterized neuronal cell model of oxidative stress, we isolated and identified cytosolic DSBP based on a modified diagonal two-dimensional PAGE method and mass spectrometry. We show here that protein disulfide bond formation readily occurs within the cytoplasm of unstressed as well as oxidant-stressed cells and that disulfide bond formation is dependent on the type of oxidant exposure. These redox-sensitive proteins, previously not known to form disulfide bonds, participate in numerous cellular processes including translation, molecular chaperoning, glycolysis, cell growth, cytoskeletal structure, antioxidant activity, and signal transduction, suggesting that disulfide bond formation may have a regulatory role in these processes. Cell Lines and Oxidant Exposure—HT22 cells (17Li Y. Maher P. Schubert D. Neuron. 1997; 19: 453-463Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (424) Google Scholar) were grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium containing 10% fetal calf serum. Cells were maintained at no greater than 50% confluence. For oxidant exposure studies, 2.5 × 105 cells were seeded per 100-mm dish and the following day either exposed to 5 mm glutamate for 8 h, 1 mm diamide for 5 min, or 10 mm H2O2 for 5 min. In some studies cells were exposed to either 10, 150, or 400 μm H2O2 for 10 min. Glutathione Measurement—Cells were washed twice with PBS, harvested in 1% sulfosalicylic acid, and centrifuged at 16,000 × g for 10 min. Glutathione and protein assays were performed on the supernatant and pellet, respectively. Total glutathione was measured by a standard recycling assay based on the reduction of 5,5-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid in the presence of glutathione reductase and NADPH (18Griffith O.W. Anal. Biochem. 1980; 106: 207-212Crossref PubMed Scopus (4060) Google Scholar). GSSG was separately measured after derivatization of GSH with 2-vinylpyridine. Prot-SSG levels were measured after sonicating and rinsing the protein pellets in 1% sulfosalicylic acid and then resuspending the pellet in 0.01 m Tris-HCl, pH 7.5. The solution was then treated for 45 min at 41 °C with 0.25% sodium borohydride at neutral pH to reduce the disulfide linkage. Excess borohydride was decomposed by acidification, and the liberated GSH was measured as described above. Cytosolic Fractionation and Protein Precipitation—Following exposure to various oxidative stimuli, ∼5 × 106 HT22 cells were washed twice with PBS and then incubated in ice-cold PBS with 40 mm iodoacetamide (IA) for 5 min to prevent thiol-disulfide exchange and inhibit post-lysis oxidation of free cysteines. By using a modified differential detergent fractionation technique (19Ramsby M.L. Makowski G.S. Methods Mol. Biol. 1999; 112: 53-66PubMed Google Scholar), cells were scraped, pelleted, and resuspended in 0.5 ml of digitonin extraction buffer (10 mm PIPES, pH 6.8, 0.015% (w/v) digitonin, 300 mm sucrose, 100 mm NaCl, 3 mm MgCl2, 5mm EDTA, 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) + 40 mm IA, followed by rocking on ice for 10 min. Following centrifugation at 480 × g, the supernatant (cytosolic fraction) was transferred to a new tube, and proteins were precipitated with trichloroacetic acid (10% final concentration). The precipitated proteins were resolubilized in 100 μl of solubilization buffer (100 mm Tris, pH 7.5, 2% SDS, 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride) + 40 mm IA. For membrane/organelle and nuclear fractionation, post-digitonin-extracted pellets were further processed by using the differential detergent fractionation technique (19Ramsby M.L. Makowski G.S. Methods Mol. Biol. 1999; 112: 53-66PubMed Google Scholar). Redox Two-dimensional PAGE—An equal volume of SDS sample buffer, free of reducing agents, was added to resolubilized cytosolic extracts. Gels (10% acrylamide, 1.0 mm thickness) were prepared according to Laemmli (20Laemmli U.K. Nature. 1970; 227: 680-685Crossref PubMed Scopus (207538) Google Scholar), and protein samples (120 μg) were subjected to electrophoresis in the first dimension for 5 h at constant current (25 mA) using a Hoefer SE 600 gel apparatus (Amersham Biosciences). After electrophoresis, the gel lanes containing the separated proteins were cut and immersed in SDS sample buffer containing 100 mm DTT for 20 min at room temperature. Following a brief wash with SDS running buffer, the gel slices were further immersed in SDS sample buffer containing 100 mm IA for 10 min. Each gel strip was then applied horizontally to another gel (10% acrylamide, 1.5 mm thickness), and electrophoresis was performed in the second dimension for 14 h at constant current (10 mA/gel). Gels were fixed in 50% methanol, 5% acetic acid for 20 min and either silver-stained according to the method of Schevchenko et al. (21Shevchenko A. Wilm M. Vorm O. Mann M. Anal. Chem. 1996; 68: 850-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (7831) Google Scholar) or stained with GelCode Blue according to the manufacturer (Pierce). Identification of Redox-sensitive Proteins—Gel spots from redox two-dimensional gels were excised and in-gel digested with trypsin (21Shevchenko A. Wilm M. Vorm O. Mann M. Anal. Chem. 1996; 68: 850-858Crossref PubMed Scopus (7831) Google Scholar). The resulting peptides were analyzed by either liquid chromatographyelectrospray tandem MS (MS/MS) or matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionization MS (MALDI-TOF). For MS/MS analysis, peptides were initially separated using a microbore high pressure liquid chromatography system (Surveyor, ThermoFinnigan, San Jose, CA), and the eluent from the high pressure liquid chromatography column was eluted directly into the electrospray ionization source of a ThermoFinnigan LCQ-Deca ion trap mass spectrometer (ThermoFinnigan, San Jose, CA) as described previously (22Andon N.L. Hollingworth S. Koller A. Greenland A.J. Yates III, J.R. Haynes P.A. Proteomics. 2002; 2: 1156-1168Crossref PubMed Scopus (165) Google Scholar). MS/MS data were analyzed using the SEQUEST algorithm, and positive sequence identifications were based on established criteria such as a cross-correlation factor (Xcorr) greater than 2.5, a Δ cross-correlation factor (ΔXcorr) greater than 0.1, and a minimum of one tryptic peptide terminus. All matched peptides were confirmed by visual examination of the spectra. All spectra were searched against a composite data base containing the latest version of the non-redundant protein data base Swiss-Prot. For MALDI-TOF analysis, aliquots of digest samples (0.5 μl) were mixed with an equal volume of matrix solution (saturated solution of α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid in 0.3% trifluoroacetic acid and 30% acetonitrile) on the target plate. MALDI-TOF spectra were acquired using a Voyager DESTR instrument (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). The machine employs a nitrogen laser (337 nm) and was run in positive ion reflector mode with an ion extraction delay. Monoisotopic peptide masses were determined after internal calibration and searched against the NCBInr mouse protein data base using the Protein Prospector (University of California, San Francisco) program with a mass tolerance of 25 ppm. Immunoblot Analysis—Fractionated cytosolic, membrane/organelle, and nuclear extracts (15 μg) were resolved using 4–12% nonreducing SDS-PAGE (NOVEX, Carlsbad, CA), electroblotted onto Immobilon P membrane (Millipore, Bedford, MA), and blocked with 1% milk, 3% bovine serum albumin in Tris-buffered saline. Blots were hybridized with antibodies against PRX-1, NDPK-B (Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc., Santa Cruz, CA), HSC70, HSP70, protein disulfide isomerase (Stressgen, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada), GAPDH (Chemicon, Temecula, CA), actin, α-tubulin (Sigma), and FLAG (Eastman Kodak) overnight and, following washing, were further hybridized with appropriate horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies (Bio-Rad). Detection was performed using ECL Western blotting detection reagents (Amersham Biosciences). Induction of Disulfide Bonding by GSSG—Cytoplasmic extracts were prepared as described above except IA was not added during harvesting or lysis. Extracts (250 μg) were incubated for 1 h at room temperature in the presence of different ratios of GSH and GSSG. The total concentration of GSH equivalents was maintained at 5 mm in the incubation mixture. Following incubation, lysates were precipitated with 10% trichloroacetic acid, solubilized, and analyzed by redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE as described above. Labeling of DSBP with Biotin-conjugated Iodoacetamide—Proteins were first separated by nonreducing gel electrophoresis and then the gel lanes were cut and immersed in 25 mm Tris, pH 7.0, 1 mm EDTA, and 100 mm DTT. Following in-gel reduction for 20 min, gel slices were washed three times in Tris/EDTA buffer and incubated with 50 μmN-(biotinyl)-N′-(iodoacetyl)ethylenediamine (Molecular Probes) in 25 mm Tris, pH 6.5, 0.1 mm EDTA for 20 min at room temperature. Gel slices were applied horizontally to another gel, and electrophoresis was performed as described above followed by electroblotting onto polyvinylidene difluoride membrane and detection using streptavidin-conjugated horseradish peroxidase (Roche Applied Science). Construction of Epitope-tagged HSP70 Vector—Human HSP70 cDNA was amplified by PCR by using the primer sets 5′-GGCGGATCCACCATGGCCAAAGCCGCGGCAGTC-3′ and 5′-TGCGGTCGACCTACTTATCGTCGTCATCCTTGTAATCATCTACCTCCTCAATGGTGGG-3′ and pH 2.3/HSP70 (kindly provided by Richard I. Morimoto, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL) as a template. BamHI and SalI/FLAG sequences were incorporated into the 5′ and 3′ primers, respectively. The PCR product was digested with BamHI and SalI, inserted into a BamHI/SalI-cut pRevTRE vector (Clontech, Palo Alto, CA), and sequenced to verify the fidelity of the PCR and ensure that the FLAG sequence was incorporated. The resulting vector (HSP70-FLAG) was transfected into HT22 cells expressing the reverse tetracycline-controlled transactivator. Expression of HSP70-FLAG was induced by the addition of 2 μg/ml doxycycline for 24 h. Immunoprecipitation—Cytosolic extracts were prepared as described above and precipitated with trichloroacetic acid. Acid-precipitated proteins were resolubilized in 100 μl of MNT buffer (20 mm MES, 100 mm NaCl, 30 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 1 mm EDTA, 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 0.5% Triton X-100, 20 mm IA) containing 1% SDS. After adjusting the volume to 1 ml with MNT buffer, 20 μl of agarose-coupled M2 anti-FLAG antibody (Sigma) was added and incubated at 4 °C overnight. After three washes with MNT buffer, the immunocomplexes were competitively eluted by the addition of 100 μl of FLAG peptide (400 μg/ml). Elution fractions were analyzed by both immunoblotting and redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE as described above. H2O2 and Diamide Induce Protein Mixed Disulfides with Glutathione—We examined the effect of a variety of oxidative conditions on protein disulfide bond formation using the murine hippocampal cell line HT22. This cell line has been used extensively to examine oxidative stress-induced cell death (23Tan S. Sagara Y. Liu Y. Maher P. Schubert D. J. Cell Biol. 1998; 141: 1423-1432Crossref PubMed Scopus (652) Google Scholar, 24Sagara Y. Dargusch R. Chambers D. Davis J. Schubert D. Maher P. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1998; 24: 1375-1389Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar, 25Ishige K. Schubert D. Sagara Y. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2001; 30: 433-446Crossref PubMed Scopus (733) Google Scholar, 26Tan S. Somia N. Maher P. Schubert D. J. Cell Biol. 2001; 152: 997-1006Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar). Non-receptor mediated oxidative glutamate toxicity is initiated by high concentrations of extracellular glutamate that prevents cystine uptake into cells, which in turn depletes both intracellular cysteine and GSH, and leads to a dramatic increase in ROS and ultimately cell death (23Tan S. Sagara Y. Liu Y. Maher P. Schubert D. J. Cell Biol. 1998; 141: 1423-1432Crossref PubMed Scopus (652) Google Scholar, 24Sagara Y. Dargusch R. Chambers D. Davis J. Schubert D. Maher P. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1998; 24: 1375-1389Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar). This form of oxidative stress-induced programmed cell death is called oxytosis (27Tan S. Schubert D. Maher P. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2001; 1: 497-506Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar). HT22 cells are highly sensitive to extracellular glutamate, H2O2, and agents that deplete GSH (23Tan S. Sagara Y. Liu Y. Maher P. Schubert D. J. Cell Biol. 1998; 141: 1423-1432Crossref PubMed Scopus (652) Google Scholar, 24Sagara Y. Dargusch R. Chambers D. Davis J. Schubert D. Maher P. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1998; 24: 1375-1389Crossref PubMed Scopus (159) Google Scholar). H2O2 is a diffusible mild oxidant that readily promotes the conversion of sulfhydryl groups into disulfides and other oxidized species (10Rhee S.G. Bae Y.S. Lee S.R. Kwon J. Science's STKE. 2000; http://www.stke.org/cgi/content/full/OC_sigtrans;2000/53/pe1PubMed Google Scholar). Diamide is an oxidizing agent that easily penetrates cell membranes and rapidly reacts with low molecular weight thiols (such as GSH) and promotes intracellular protein disulfide cross-linking (28Kosower N.S. Kosower E.M. Methods Enzymol. 1995; 251: 123-133Crossref PubMed Scopus (286) Google Scholar). In eukaryotic cells, cysteine residues within cytoplasmic proteins are maintained in a reduced state due to the high concentration of GSH (2–10 mm) and the high ratio (100–400:1) between GSH and GSH disulfide (GSSG) (29Gilbert H.F. Methods Enzymol. 1995; 251: 8-28Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar). During oxidative stress the levels of GSH decrease, GSSG levels increase, and mixed disulfides form between GSH and redox-sensitive proteins (a process termed glutathionylation), all of which are theorized to promote protein disulfide bond formation (29Gilbert H.F. Methods Enzymol. 1995; 251: 8-28Crossref PubMed Scopus (497) Google Scholar). We therefore examined levels of GSH, GSSG, and Prot-SSG in oxidant-treated HT22 cells to verify that the oxidants used would promote disulfide bond formation. As expected, glutamate treatment caused a massive decrease in GSH levels (Fig. 1A). Although H2O2 treatment had little effect on GSH levels, GSSG levels were increased over 3-fold compared with untreated cells (Fig. 1B). In contrast, diamide treatment caused a modest decrease in GSH levels and essentially had no effect on GSSG levels. However, the ratio of GSH/GSSG was 230, 21.3, 78, and 163.2 in control, glutamate-, H2O2-, and diamide-treated cells, respectively, indicating that all three treatments promoted oxidation to varying degrees. Most interesting, both H2O2 and diamide treatments caused between a 14- and 19-fold increase in Prot-SSG levels (Fig. 1C). Isolation of Disulfide-linked Proteins in Oxidatively Challenged HT22 Cells by Nonreducing/Reducing Two-dimensional SDS-PAGE—Following oxidant treatment, cytoplasmic extracts from HT22 cells were isolated using a modified differential detergent fractionation technique (19Ramsby M.L. Makowski G.S. Methods Mol. Biol. 1999; 112: 53-66PubMed Google Scholar). To ensure that the cytoplasmic fractions were not contaminated with proteins from either the membrane/organelle or nuclear fractions, we performed immunoblot analysis with antibodies that recognize endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear specific proteins. Essentially no contamination with proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum (protein-disulfide isomerase) or the nucleus (cAMP-response element-binding protein) was observed in the cytoplasmic fraction (Fig. 2A). To isolate proteins that form either intra- or intermolecular disulfide bonds, we sequentially resolved cytosolic proteins by non-reducing followed by reducing SDS-PAGE (redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE). The resulting silver-stained gels reveal a prominent diagonal line of proteins (Fig. 2B). This line represents the majority of proteins within the cytosol that does not form disulfide bonds. However, proteins that form intermolecular disulfide bonds exhibit a slower electrophoretic mobility under non-reducing conditions in the first dimension and therefore appear as spots to the right of the diagonal line following reducing SDS-PAGE in the second dimension. Spots that appear to the left of the diagonal line represent proteins that exhibit a faster electrophoretic mobility under non-reducing conditions due to intramolecular disulfide bonding. In order to verify that acrylamide did not artificially induce disulfide bonding, cytosolic protein extracts were treated with the reducing agent dithiothreitol (DTT) in both the first and second dimension. As expected, the presence of reducing agents in both dimensions resulted in a clear diagonal line with essentially no spots in the off-diagonal zone (Fig. 2F). We treated HT22 cells with concentrations of glutamate, H2O2, and diamide that elicit an oxidative response but lead to less than 10% cell death within the time frame of the experiment. Under non-stressed conditions, numerous DSBP were apparent (Fig. 2B). Exposure to either glutamate, H2O2, or diamide resulted in increased levels of existing DSBP and the appearance of new DSBP that were not apparent in the non-stressed control cells (Fig. 2, C–E). Identification of DSBPs by Mass Spectrometry—Protein spots that exhibited reproducible migration following redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE were excised, in-gel digested with trypsin, and identified by either matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) or by capillary liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy (MS/MS). A representative redox two-dimensional SDS-PAGE gel of cells treated with diamide, which contains all the DSBP spots identified, is presented along with the corresponding spot numbers in Fig. 3. Analysis of the DSBP identified revealed that most of the proteins could be classified into the following eight functional categories: molecular chaperones, protein translation, glycolysis, cytoskeletal, cell growth, antioxidant, signal transduction, and others. Table I summarizes the DSBP identified and their corresponding spot identification number on Fig. 3. Some proteins, such as HSC70, HSP70, and HSP90, formed more than one intermolecular disulfide bond and therefore appeared as several spots to the right of the diagonal line (Fig. 3B). The translation elongation factor, EF-1-α-1, formed both intra- and intermolecular disulfide bonds and thus appeared as several spots to the left and right of the diagonal line, respectively (Fig. 3A). In some cases, such as spots 1, 5, and 11, multiple proteins were identified per spot (Table I) due to similar migration patterns in the non-reducing first dimension.Table ISummary of DSBP identified and method of identificationProteinSpot no.NCBI no.Molecular massID methodMALDI-TOFMS/MSkDaMolecular chaperonesCalreticulin9P1421160++GRP785P2002978+HSC706-8P0810973++HSP706-8P1787970++HSP90-α2, 3P0790186++HSP90-β2, 3P1149984++TCP-1 α11P1198361+TCP-1 β14P8031458+TCP-1 δ13P8031558+TCP-1 ϵ11P