Many proteins suspected of causing neurodegenerative diseases exist in diverse assembly states. For most, it is unclear whether shifts from one state to another would be helpful or harmful. We used mutagenesis to change the assembly state of Alzheimer disease (AD)-associated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. In vitro, the “Arctic” mutation (AβE22G) accelerated Aβ fibrillization but decreased the abundance of nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies, compared with wild-type Aβ. In human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) transgenic mice carrying mutations adjacent to Aβ that increase Aβ production, addition of the Arctic mutation markedly enhanced the formation of neuritic amyloid plaques but reduced the relative abundance of a specific nonfibrillar Aβ assembly (Aβ*56). Mice overexpressing Arctic mutant or wild-type Aβ had similar behavioral and neuronal deficits when they were matched for Aβ*56 levels but had vastly different plaque loads. Thus, Aβ*56 is a likelier determinant of functional deficits in hAPP mice than fibrillar Aβ deposits. Therapeutic interventions that reduce Aβ fibrils at the cost of augmenting nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies could be harmful. Many proteins suspected of causing neurodegenerative diseases exist in diverse assembly states. For most, it is unclear whether shifts from one state to another would be helpful or harmful. We used mutagenesis to change the assembly state of Alzheimer disease (AD)-associated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. In vitro, the “Arctic” mutation (AβE22G) accelerated Aβ fibrillization but decreased the abundance of nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies, compared with wild-type Aβ. In human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) transgenic mice carrying mutations adjacent to Aβ that increase Aβ production, addition of the Arctic mutation markedly enhanced the formation of neuritic amyloid plaques but reduced the relative abundance of a specific nonfibrillar Aβ assembly (Aβ*56). Mice overexpressing Arctic mutant or wild-type Aβ had similar behavioral and neuronal deficits when they were matched for Aβ*56 levels but had vastly different plaque loads. Thus, Aβ*56 is a likelier determinant of functional deficits in hAPP mice than fibrillar Aβ deposits. Therapeutic interventions that reduce Aβ fibrils at the cost of augmenting nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies could be harmful. Alzheimer disease (AD) 3The abbreviations used are: AD, Alzheimer disease; Aβ, amyloid-β; hAPP, human amyloid precursor protein; CNS, central nervous system; AFM, atomic force microscopy; NTG, nontransgenic; TG, transgenic; β-CTF, β-secretase-generated C-terminal APP fragment; Tricine, N-[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine; ANOVA, analysis of variance; GuHCl, guanidine hydrochloride. 3The abbreviations used are: AD, Alzheimer disease; Aβ, amyloid-β; hAPP, human amyloid precursor protein; CNS, central nervous system; AFM, atomic force microscopy; NTG, nontransgenic; TG, transgenic; β-CTF, β-secretase-generated C-terminal APP fragment; Tricine, N-[2-hydroxy-1,1-bis(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]glycine; ANOVA, analysis of variance; GuHCl, guanidine hydrochloride. and many other neurodegenerative disorders are associated with the accumulation of abnormal protein assemblies in the central nervous system (CNS). Much evidence suggests that this association reflects a causal relationship in which the abnormal proteins actually trigger the neuronal dysfunction and degeneration that characterize these conditions (1Walsh D.M. Selkoe D.J. Neuron. 2004; 44: 181-193Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1046) Google Scholar, 2Tanzi R. Bertram L. Cell. 2005; 120: 545-555Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1479) Google Scholar, 3Skovronsky D.M. Lee V Trojanowski M.-Y. Annu. Rev. Pathol. Mech. Dis. 2006; 1: 151-170Crossref PubMed Scopus (325) Google Scholar). The prevalence of AD and other neurodegenerative proteinopathies is increasing rapidly around the world, most likely because of their age dependence, the increasing longevity of many populations, and the lack of effective strategies for treatment and prevention (4Hebert L. Scherr P. Bienias J. Bennett D. Evans D. Arch. Neurol. 2003; 60: 1119-1122Crossref PubMed Scopus (1928) Google Scholar, 5Ferri C.P. Prince M. Brayne C. 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We investigated by atomic force microscopy (AFM) how the Arctic mutation affects the balance between fibrillar and nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies in cell-free conditions and compared its effect on the relative abundance of neuritic amyloid plaques and nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies in brain tissues of hAPP mice. Lastly, we examined whether behavioral deficits and depletions of synaptic activity-related proteins in these mice relate more closely to plaques or nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies. Ex Situ AFM—Wild-type (wt) and Arctic mutant synthetic Aβ1–42 (Biopeptide, San Diego, CA) were dissolved in 100% 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP; Sigma) to 0.5 mg/ml and dried under vacuum. The HFIP-treated peptides were resuspended to 5 mg/ml in anhydrous dimethyl sulfoxide and incubated for 1 h at 37 °C. This stock solution was diluted in phosphate-buffered saline to a final concentration of 100 μg/ml and agitated at 1000 rpm at 37 °C. An aliquot from each sample was taken at various time intervals for immediate deposition. Aβ*56 was purified from forebrains of Tg2576 mice by immunoaffinity chromatography followed by size-exclusion chromatography as described (15Lesné S. MT K. Kotilinek L. Kayed R. Glabe C.G. Yang A. Gallagher M. Ashe K.H. Nature. 2006; 440: 352-357Crossref PubMed Scopus (2414) Google Scholar). Three 5-μl samples of each incubation solution were deposited on freshly cleaved mica (SPI, West Chester, PA) and allowed to sit for 30 s. The substrate was washed twice with 100 μl of ultra-pure water, and the sample was then dried under a gentle stream of air. Tapping-mode AFM in air was performed with a Nanoscope IIIa system (Veeco, Santa Barbara, CA) equipped with a vertical-engage E scanner. Standard etched silicon probes (nominal spring constant, 50 N/m; resonance frequency, 300 kHz) were used. Typically, the following imaging parameters were used: drive amplitude of 150–500 kHz with set points of 0.8–1.0 V, scan frequencies of 4–5 Hz, image resolution of 512 by 512 points, and scan sizes of 3–12 μm. Custom software was used for AFM image analysis (35Legleiter J. Czilli D.L. Gitter B. DeMattos R.B. Holtzman D.M. Kowalewski T. J. Mol. Biol. 2004; 335: 997-1006Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar). Volume measurements were corrected for lateral tip contributions as described (36Legleiter J. DeMattos R.B. Holtzman D.M. Kowalewski T. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2004; 278: 96-106Crossref PubMed Scopus (31) Google Scholar). For image quantification, nonfibrillar Aβ assemblies (oligomers and protofibrils) were defined as any structure with a height of 1–6 nm and a width to length (aspect) ratio smaller than 2.5. Fibrillar Aβ assemblies (fibrils and larger aggregates) were defined as any structure with a height larger than 6 nm and an aspect ratio of 2.5 or above. The ratio of nonfibrillar to fibrillar Aβ in Fig. 1D was calculated from the percent area occupied by each type of Aβ assembly as defined above. In Situ AFM—In situ AFM experiments were performed with a Nanoscope IIIa MultiMode scanning probe microscope equipped with a fluid cell and a vertical engage E-scanner. Images were taken with a V-shaped oxide-sharpened silicon nitride cantilever with a nominal spring constant of 0.5 N/m. Scan rates were set at 1–3 Hz with cantilever drive frequencies of ∼8–10 kHz. Freshly cleaved mica substrates were used, and phosphate-buffered saline was added to the cell in 35-μl aliquots by the hanging-drop method. Once the cantilever had successfully engaged the surface, a 15-μl aliquot of freshly made 1000 μg/ml Aβ-Wt or Aβ-Arctic was injected into the fluid cell, resulting in a final concentration of 300 μg/ml. Experimental Animals—Artic-mutant hAPP (ARC) lines were generated in C57BL/6N mice (Harlan, Indianapolis, IN) and crossed onto the C57BL/6J background (Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME) for 6–8 generations (34Cheng I. Palop J. Esposito L. Bien-Ly N. Yan F. Mucke L. Nat. Med. 2004; 10: 1190-1192Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar). The J20 line was generated in C57BL/6 x DBA/2 hybrids (18Mucke L. Masliah E. Yu G.-Q. Mallory M. Rockenstein E.M. Tatsuno G. Hu K. Kholodenko D. Johnson-Wood K. McConlogue L. J. Neurosci. 2000; 20: 4050-4058Crossref PubMed Google Scholar) and crossed onto the C57BL/6J background for more than 10 generations. Most results were compared with results in nontransgenic (NTG) littermates from each line to control for any line-specific effects. Unless indicated otherwise, mice were analyzed at 3–4 months of age. The studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the University of California, San Francisco, and conducted in compliance with the National Institutes of Health’s “Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.” Behavioral Tests—Two independent, genotype- and line-balanced cohorts of singly housed male mice and NTG littermate controls from lines J20, ARC6, and ARC48 (n = 9–13/group) were tested in the sequence of elevated plus maze, open field, Y maze, and Morris water maze. The experimenter was blind to line and genotype during testing. Open Field—Activity in the open field was tested with the automated Flex-Field/Open Field Photobeam Activity System (San Diego Instruments, San Diego, CA). The system consisted of two identical clear plastic chambers (41 × 41 × 38 cm), a PAS control box, a PC interface board, and a microcomputer for recording and analysis of data. Two sensor frames, each consisting of a 16 × 16 photobeam array at 1.5 cm and 6 cm above the bottom of the cage, were used to detect movements in the horizontal and vertical planes. The test was initiated by placing the mouse in the center of the arena. Horizontal beam breaks (ambulatory moves) in the arena were counted over 15 min. The arena was cleaned and dried after each test. Y-Maze—The Y-maze was constructed of black plastic walls (10 cm high). It consisted of three compartments (10 cm × 10 cm) connected with 4 cm × 5 cm passages. The mouse was placed in one of the compartments and allowed to move freely for 6 min. An arm entry was manually recorded when all four paws entered the compartment. After each test, the maze was thoroughly cleaned. Elevated Plus Maze—The elevated plus-shaped maze consisted of two open arms and two closed arms equipped with rows of infrared photobeams (Hamilton-Kinder, Poway, CA). Mice were habituated to dim lighting in the testing room for 30 min and then were placed individually at the center of the apparatus and allowed to explore for 10 min. The time spent and distance traveled in each of the arms were recorded by infrared beam breaks. After each mouse was tested, the apparatus was thoroughly cleaned. Morris Water Maze—The water maze consisted of a pool (122 cm in diameter) containing opaque water (18 °C) and a platform (14 cm in diameter) submerged 1.5 cm under the water. For cued training sessions (days 1–3), the platform was marked with a visible beacon, and the mice were trained to locate the platform over six sessions (two per day, 4 h apart) each with two trials. The platform location was changed for each session. Hidden platform training (days 4–8) consisted of 10 sessions (two per day, 4 h apart), each with three trials. The platform location remained constant in the hidden platform sessions, and the entry points were changed semirandomly between trials. The maximum trial time was 60 s. Mice that failed to find the platform were led to it and placed on it for 15 s. A day after the last hidden platform training session, a probe trial was conducted by removing the platform and allowing mice to search in the pool for 1 min. Time to reach the platform, time in target quadrant, platform crossings, path length, and swim speed were recorded with an EthoVision video tracking system (Noldus, Netherlands). Immunoblotting and Immunohistochemistry—Mice were sacrificed 2 days after behavioral testing, and their brains were cut in half sagittally. One half was fixed for 48 h in 4% paraformaldehyde for immunohistochemical analysis, and the other was frozen in dry ice for biochemical analysis. To measure total Aβ1-x and Aβ1–42, snap-frozen forebrains were homogenized in 5 m guanidine buffer, and human Aβ peptides were quantitated by ELISA as described (18Mucke L. Masliah E. Yu G.-Q. Mallory M. Rockenstein E.M. Tatsuno G. Hu K. Kholodenko D. Johnson-Wood K. McConlogue L. J. Neurosci. 2000; 20: 4050-4058Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Protein fractionation and Aβ*56 detection in hAPP mice were performed as described (15Lesné S. MT K. Kotilinek L. Kayed R. Glabe C.G. Yang A. Gallagher M. Ashe K.H. Nature. 2006; 440: 352-357Crossref PubMed Scopus (2414) Google Scholar). Briefly, total proteins (100 μg) from the radioimmune precipitation assay buffer (RIPA) soluble fraction were separated on 10.5–20% Tricine gels or 4–12% Bis-Tris gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane (0.2 μm pore size, Bio-Rad). Biotinylated 6E10 antibody (1:1000, Signet, Dedham, MA) and ExtrAvidin (1:5000, Sigma) were used for Western blotting. Immunohistochemistry was performed as described (20Palop J.J. Jones B. Kekonius L. Chin J. Yu G.-Q. Raber J. Masliah E. Mucke L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 9572-9577Crossref PubMed Scopus (334) Google Scholar) on floating 30-μm sliding microtome sections with anti-Aβ (3D6, 1:500, Elan Pharmaceuticals, South San Francisco, CA), anti-APP (8E5, 1:1000, Elan Pharmaceuticals), anti-Fos (Ab-5, 1:10,000, Calbiochem) or anti-calbindin (1:15,000; Swant, Bellinzona, Switzerland) antibodies. Diaminobenzidine was used as the chromagen. Images were acquired with a digital camera (Axiocam, Carl Zeiss). Densitometric quantification of calbindin immunoreactivity was performed with Bioquant (20Palop J.J. Jones B. Kekonius L. Chin J. Yu G.-Q. Raber J. Masliah E. Mucke L. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2003; 100: 9572-9577Crossref PubMed Scopus (334) Google Scholar). For double-labeling of amyloid plaques and dystrophic neurites, floating sections were stained with monoclonal anti-hAPP antibody (8E5, 1:1000, Elan Pharmaceuticals), mounted on glass slides, and stained with 0.015% thioflavin-S. Images were collected with a confocal microscope (Bio-Rad). Statistical Analysis—Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS11 (SPSS, Chicago, IL) or Statview (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Quantitative data are reported as mean ± S.E. Pairs of means were compared by unpaired two-tailed t test and multiple means by ANOVA and Tukey-Kramer posthoc test. Learning curves in the water maze were analyzed by repeated-measures ANOVA. Differences in survival curves were assessed by Kaplan-Meier analysis. Correlations were examined by simple regression analysis. The Arctic Mutation Markedly Increases the Ratio of Fibrillar to Nonfibrillar Aβ in Vitro—Whereas it is well established that Aβ-Arctic aggregates more quickly than Aβ-Wt (29Nilsberth C. Westlind-Danielsson A. Eckman C.B. Condron M.M. Axelman K. Forsell C. Stenh C. Luthman J. Teplow D.B. Younkin S.G. Naslund J. Lannfelt L. Nat. Neurosci. 2001; 4: 887-893Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar, 32Johansson S.A Berglind-Dehlin F. Karlsson G. Edwards K. Gellerfors P. Lannfelt L. FEBS J. 2006; 273: 2618-2630Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar), the specific aggregates formed and their ratios have, to our knowledge, not yet been analyzed by AFM. This technique provides quantitative three-dimensional morphological information unavailable with other approaches, such as analytical ultracentrifugation or dye-binding experiments. We first used in situ AFM to monitor the early events of synthetic Aβ1–42 assembly in real time under cell-free conditions as described (45Kowalewski T. Holtzman D.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 3688-3693Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar). At a solution concentration of 62.5 μm, Aβ-Wt assembled predominantly into globular oligomers, which first appeared after 10 min and continuously increased in number during a 2-h incubation period (Fig. 1A, upper panel and Movie S1 in Supplemental Data). At the same concentration, Aβ-Arctic assembled into short rod-shaped protofibrils in less than 1 h (Fig. 1A, lower panel and Movie S2 in Supplemental Data), in agreement with previous reports that the Arctic mutation accelerates the formation of Aβ protofibrils (29Nilsberth C. Westlind-Danielsson A. Eckman C.B. Condron M.M. Axelman K. Forsell C. Stenh C. Luthman J. Teplow D.B. Younkin S.G. Naslund J. Lannfelt L. Nat. Neurosci. 2001; 4: 887-893Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar, 30Lashuel H.A. Hartley D.M. Petre B.M. Wall J.S. Simon M.N. Walz T. Lansbury J. Peter T. J. Mol. Biol. 2003; 332: 795-808Crossref PubMed Scopus (205) Google Scholar, 31Murakami K. Irie K. Morimoto A. Ohigashi H. Shindo M. Nagao M. Shimizu T. Shirasawa T. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 46179-46187Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 32Johansson S.A Berglind-Dehlin F. Karlsson G. Edwards K. Gellerfors P. Lannfelt L. FEBS J. 2006; 273: 2618-2630Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar). The globular Aβ-Wt oligomers were 4–5 nm in height, mobile on mica, and coalesced into extended aggregates with segmented morphologies and often high curvature (Fig. S1, A and B in Supplemental Data), consistent with earlier findings (45Kowalewski T. Holtzman D.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 3688-3693Crossref PubMed Scopus (368) Google Scholar). In contrast, Aβ-Arctic protofibrils were 4.5–5.5 nm in height, had a more rigid morphology, were often highly branched, and formed highly ordered arrays along the crystallographic lattice of the mica surface (Fig. S1, C and D in Supplemental Data). Aβ-Arctic protofibrils did not grow from an obvious oligomeric precursor on the mica surface, although we cannot exclude the possibility that these structures may have formed transiently in solution before deposition. To quantify the levels of various structural assemblies of Aβ that accumulate over longer periods of time, Aβ samples at lower concentration (20.8 μm) were allowed to aggregate in test tubes at 37 °C before ex situ analysis by AFM (35Legleiter J. Czilli D.L. Gitter B. DeMattos R.B. Holtzman D.M. Kowalewski T. J. Mol. Biol. 2004; 335: 997-1006Crossref PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar). The majority of Aβ-Wt assemblies that appeared within 48 h of incubation were globular oligomers (1–2.5 nm in height) and short rod-shaped protofibrils (3–5 nm in height), whereas elongated fibrils and larger aggregates that were taller than 6 nm in height appeared only after 72 h (Fig. 1B, upper panel and Fig. S2, A and B in Supplemental Data). Under the same conditions, Aβ-Arctic remained in small nonfibrillar states at 1 h but had already assembled into fibrils and larger aggregates by 24 h (Fig. 1B, lower panel and Fig. S2, C and D in Supplemental Data). These results differ from the original report of the Arctic mutation (29Nilsberth C. Westlind-Danielsson A. Eckman C.B. Condron M.M. Axelman K. Forsell C. Stenh C. Luthman J. Teplow D.B. Younkin S.G. Naslund J. Lannfelt L. Nat. Neurosci. 2001; 4: 887-893Crossref PubMed Scopus (900) Google Scholar), which concluded that it does not affect the Aβ fibrillization rate. Differences in experimental conditions that may explain this discrepancy include the use of Aβ1–42 instead of Aβ1–40 and of AFM instead of size exclusion chromatography in the current study. Our AFM findings are consistent with other studies demonstrating that the Arctic mutation accelerates fibril formation (30Lashuel H.A. Hartley D.M. Petre B.M. Wall J.S. Simon M.N. Walz T. Lansbury J. Peter T. J. Mol. 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Effects of the Arctic Mutation on Plaque Load and Aβ*56 Levels in Vivo—To examine the effect of the Arctic mutation on Aβ assembly in vivo, we studied three lines of hAPP transgenic mice that produce human Aβ-Wt (line J20) or Aβ-Arctic (lines ARC6 and ARC48) (Fig. 2A). The Swedish and Indiana familial AD mutations within hAPP sequences flanking Aβ (Fig. 2A) were introduced into all three lines to maximize production of the pathogenic Aβ1–42 species. Because J20 mice carry only these mutations, their transgene-derived Aβ has the sequence of wild-type human Aβ. Because both ARC lines in addition carry the Arctic mutation, which resides in the middle of Aβ, they produce Arctic-mutant human Aβ. The levels of hAPP in the forebrain were lower in ARC6 mice and higher in ARC48 mice than in J20 mice (Fig. 2B). At 3–4 months of age, levels of guanidine-soluble Aβ1-x and Aβ1–42 in the forebrain were comparable in J20 and ARC6 mice and much higher in ARC48 mice (Fig. 2C). The Aβ1–42/Aβ1-x ratios were similar in all three lines (Fig. 2D). An analysis of plaque formation in the hippocampus confirmed and extended our previous observations (34Cheng I. Palop J. Esposito L. Bien-Ly N. Yan F. Mucke L. Nat. Med. 2004; 10: 1190-1192Crossref PubMed Scopus (110) Google Scholar). At 3–4 months, hippocampal Aβ deposition was undetectable or minimal in J20 mice, moderate in ARC6 mice, and prominent in ARC48 mice (Fig. 3, A and C). Only ARC48 mice showed reactive astrocytosis (Fig. 3E). At 10–12 months, thioflavin-S-positive mature plaques with dystrophic neurites were present in all three lines (Fig. 3B) but were much more abundant in the ARC lines than in line J20 (Fig. 3D