Article17 February 2012Open Access A lysosome-to-nucleus signalling mechanism senses and regulates the lysosome via mTOR and TFEB Carmine Settembre Carmine Settembre Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Roberto Zoncu Roberto Zoncu Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Nine Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA David H Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Diego L Medina Diego L Medina Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Search for more papers by this author Francesco Vetrini Francesco Vetrini Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Serkan Erdin Serkan Erdin Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author SerpilUckac Erdin SerpilUckac Erdin Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Tuong Huynh Tuong Huynh Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Mathieu Ferron Mathieu Ferron Department of Genetics and Development, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Gerard Karsenty Gerard Karsenty Department of Genetics and Development, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Michel C Vellard Michel C Vellard BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc, Novato, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Valeria Facchinetti Valeria Facchinetti Department of Immunology, Center for Cancer Immunology Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author David M Sabatini David M Sabatini Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Nine Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA David H Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Seven Cambridge Center, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Andrea Ballabio Corresponding Author Andrea Ballabio Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Federico II University, Naples, Italy Search for more papers by this author Carmine Settembre Carmine Settembre Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Roberto Zoncu Roberto Zoncu Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Nine Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA David H Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Diego L Medina Diego L Medina Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Search for more papers by this author Francesco Vetrini Francesco Vetrini Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Serkan Erdin Serkan Erdin Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author SerpilUckac Erdin SerpilUckac Erdin Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Tuong Huynh Tuong Huynh Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author Mathieu Ferron Mathieu Ferron Department of Genetics and Development, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Gerard Karsenty Gerard Karsenty Department of Genetics and Development, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA Search for more papers by this author Michel C Vellard Michel C Vellard BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc, Novato, CA, USA Search for more papers by this author Valeria Facchinetti Valeria Facchinetti Department of Immunology, Center for Cancer Immunology Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA Search for more papers by this author David M Sabatini David M Sabatini Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Nine Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA David H Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Seven Cambridge Center, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA Howard Hughes Medical Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA Search for more papers by this author Andrea Ballabio Corresponding Author Andrea Ballabio Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Federico II University, Naples, Italy Search for more papers by this author Author Information Carmine Settembre1,2,3,‡, Roberto Zoncu4,5,6,‡, Diego L Medina1, Francesco Vetrini1,2,3, Serkan Erdin2, SerpilUckac Erdin2,3, Tuong Huynh2,3, Mathieu Ferron7, Gerard Karsenty7, Michel C Vellard8, Valeria Facchinetti9, David M Sabatini4,5,6,10,11 and Andrea Ballabio 1,2,3,12 1Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Naples, Italy 2Department of Molecular and Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA 3Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA 4Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Nine Cambridge Center, Cambridge, MA, USA 5Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA 6David H Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA 7Department of Genetics and Development, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA 8BioMarin Pharmaceutical Inc, Novato, CA, USA 9Department of Immunology, Center for Cancer Immunology Research, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA 10Seven Cambridge Center, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA 11Howard Hughes Medical Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA 12Medical Genetics, Department of Pediatrics, Federico II University, Naples, Italy ‡These authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding author. Telethon Institute of Genetics and Medicine (TIGEM), Via Pietro Castellino 111, Naples 80131, Italy. Tel.: +39 081 6132207; Fax: +39 081 579 0919; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2012)31:1095-1108https://doi.org/10.1038/emboj.2012.32 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. Peer ReviewDownload a summary of the editorial decision process including editorial decision letters, reviewer comments and author responses to feedback. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info The lysosome plays a key role in cellular homeostasis by controlling both cellular clearance and energy production to respond to environmental cues. However, the mechanisms mediating lysosomal adaptation are largely unknown. Here, we show that the Transcription Factor EB (TFEB), a master regulator of lysosomal biogenesis, colocalizes with master growth regulator mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) on the lysosomal membrane. When nutrients are present, phosphorylation of TFEB by mTORC1 inhibits TFEB activity. Conversely, pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1, as well as starvation and lysosomal disruption, activates TFEB by promoting its nuclear translocation. In addition, the transcriptional response of lysosomal and autophagic genes to either lysosomal dysfunction or pharmacological inhibition of mTORC1 is suppressed in TFEB−/− cells. Interestingly, the Rag GTPase complex, which senses lysosomal amino acids and activates mTORC1, is both necessary and sufficient to regulate starvation- and stress-induced nuclear translocation of TFEB. These data indicate that the lysosome senses its content and regulates its own biogenesis by a lysosome-to-nucleus signalling mechanism that involves TFEB and mTOR. Introduction The lysosome maintains cellular homeostasis and mediates a variety of physiological processes, including cellular clearance, lipid homeostasis, energy metabolism, plasma membrane repair, bone remodelling, and pathogen defense. All these processes require an adaptive and dynamic response of the lysosome to environmental cues. Indeed, physiologic cues, such as ageing and diet, and pathologic conditions, which include lysosomal storage diseases (LSDs), neurodegenerative diseases, injuries, and infections may generate an adaptive response of the lysosome (Luzio et al, 2007; Ballabio and Gieselmann, 2009; Saftig and Klumperman, 2009). Our understanding of the mechanisms that regulate lysosomal function and underlying lysosomal adaptation is still in an initial phase. A major player in the regulation of lysosomal biogenesis is the basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) leucine zipper transcription factor, TFEB (Sardiello et al, 2009). Among the identified TFEB transcriptional targets are lysosomal hydrolases that are involved in substrate degradation, lysosomal membrane proteins that mediate the interaction of the lysosome with other cellular structures, and components of the vacuolar H+-ATPase (v-ATPase) complex that participate in lysosomal acidification (Sardiello et al, 2009; Palmieri et al, 2011). TFEB is also a main player in the transcriptional response to starvation and controls autophagy by positively regulating autophagosome formation and autophagosome–lysosome fusion both in vitro and in vivo (Settembre et al, 2011). TFEB activity and its nuclear translocation correlate with its phosphorylation status (Settembre and Ballabio, 2011; Settembre et al, 2011). However, it is still unclear how the cell regulates TFEB activity according to its needs. An intriguing hypothesis is that the lysosome senses the physiological and nutritional status of the cell and conveys this information to the nucleus to drive the activation of feedback gene expression programs. A ‘sensing device’, which is responsive to the lysosomal amino acid content and involves both the v-ATPase and the master growth regulator mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1), was recently identified on the lysosomal surface (Zoncu et al, 2011a). The interaction between amino acids and v-ATPase regulates Rag guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases), which in turn activate mTORC1 by translocating it to the lysosomal surface (Sancak et al, 2008, 2010; Zoncu et al, 2011a). According to this mechanism, the lysosome participates in the signalling pathways regulated by mTOR, which controls several cellular biosynthetic and catabolic processes (Zoncu et al, 2011b). We postulated that TFEB uses the v-ATPase/mTORC1 sensing device on the lysosomal surface to modulate lysosomal function according to cellular needs. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that TFEB interacts with mTOR on the lysosomal membrane and, through this interaction, it senses the lysosomal content. Therefore, TFEB acts both as a sensor of lysosomal state, when on the lysosomal surface, and as an effector of lysosomal function when in the nucleus. This unique lysosome-to-nucleus signalling mechanism allows the lysosome to regulate its own function. Results TFEB responds to the lysosomal status We postulated that TFEB activity was regulated by the physiological status of the lysosome. Therefore, we tested whether disruption of lysosomal function had an impact on TFEB nuclear translocation. TFEB subcellular localization was analysed in HeLa and HEK-293T cells transiently transfected with a TFEB–3 × FLAG plasmid and treated overnight with several inhibitors of lysosomal function. These treatments included the use of chloroquine (CQ), an inhibitor of the lysosomal pH gradient, and Salicylihalamide A (SalA), a selective inhibitor of the v-ATPase (Xie et al, 2004), as well as overexpression of PAT1, an amino acid transporter that causes massive transport of amino acids out of the lysosomal lumen (Sagne et al, 2001). Immunofluorescence analysis showed a striking nuclear accumulation of TFEB–3 × FLAG in treated cells (Figure 1A and B). We repeated this analysis using an antibody detecting the endogenous TFEB (Supplementary Figure S1). Similarly to their effect on exogenously expressed TFEB, both amino acid starvation and lysosomal stress induced nuclear translocation of endogenous TFEB (Figure 1C). These observations were confirmed by immunoblotting performed after nuclear/cytoplasmic fractionation (Figure 1D). Immunoblotting also revealed that TFEB nuclear accumulation was associated with a shift of TFEB–3 × FLAG to a lower molecular weight, suggesting that lysosomal stress may affect TFEB phosphorylation status (Figure 1D). Figure 1.Lysosomal stress induces TFEB nuclear translocation. (A) Immunofluorescence of HEK-293T cells that express TFEB–3 × FLAG, subjected to the indicated treatments and stained with antibodies against FLAG and the lysosomal marker LAMP2. The FLAG and LAMP2 channels are in green and red, respectively, in the merge. DAPI (blue) is included in the merge. Scale bars represent 10 μm. (B) Quantification of the number of cells with nuclear TFEB–3 × FLAG in the four conditions in (A). Each value represents mean±s.d. from three independent fields with N=300. (C) Immunofluorescence of HEK-293T cells treated as indicated and stained with antibodies against endogenous TFEB and the lysosomal protein RagC (green and red, respectively, in the merge). DAPI is included in the merge. Scale bars represent 10 μm. (D) Immunoblotting of proteins extracted from HeLa cells that express TFEB–3 × FLAG treated with DMSO, chloroquine (CQ) or SalA, subjected to nuclear/cytosolic fractionation and blotted with antibody against FLAG to detect TFEB. H3 and tubulin were used as nuclear and cytosolic markers, respectively. Blots are representative of triplicate experiments. Download figure Download PowerPoint mTORC1 regulates TFEB subcellular localization Based on the observation that mTORC1 resides on the lysosomal membrane and its activity is dependent on both nutrients and lysosomal function (Sancak et al, 2010; Zoncu et al, 2011a), we postulated that the effects of lysosomal stress on TFEB nuclear translocation may be mediated by mTORC1. Consistent with this idea, chloroquine or SalA inhibited mTORC1 activity as measured by level of p-P70S6K, a known mTORC1 substrate (Figure 2A; Zoncu et al, 2011a). The involvement of mTOR appears in contrast with our previous observation that Rapamycin, a known mTOR inhibitor, did not affect TFEB activity. However, recent data indicate that Rapamycin is a partial inhibitor of mTOR, as some substrates are still efficiently phosphorylated in the presence of this drug (Thoreen et al, 2009). Therefore, we used kinase inhibitors Torin 1 and Torin2, which belong to a novel class of molecules that target the mTOR catalytic site, thereby completely inhibiting mTOR activity (Feldman et al, 2009; Garcia-Martinez et al, 2009; Thoreen et al, 2009). Figure 2.mTORC1 regulates TFEB. (A) Lysosomal stress inhibits mTOR signalling. Immunoblotting of protein extracts isolated from HeLa cells treated overnight as indicated. Membranes were probed with antibodies against p-T202/Y204-ERK1/2, ERK1/2, p-T389-S6K, and S6K to measure ERK and mTORC1 activities. (B) Torin 1 induces TFEB dephosphorylation and nuclear translocation. FLAG immunoblotting of cytosolic and nuclear fractions isolated from TFEB–3 × FLAG HeLa cells starved in amino acid-free media and subsequently stimulated as indicated for at least 3 h. Correct subcellular fractionation was verified with H3 and tubulin antibodies. (C) Effects of ERK and mTOR inhibitors on TFEB nuclear translocation. TFEB–GFP HeLa cells were seeded in 96-well plates, cultured for 12 h, and then treated with the indicated concentrations of the ERK inhibitor U0126, or the mTOR inhibitors Rapamycin, Torin 1, and Torin 2. After 3 h at 37°C, cells were processed and images were acquired using the OPERA automated confocal microscope (Perkin-Elmer). Scale bars represent 30 μm. (D) Dose–response curves of the effects of ERK and mTOR inhibitors on TFEB nuclear translocation. TFEB–GFP HeLa cells were seeded in 384-well plates, cultured for 12 h, and treated with 10 different concentrations of the ERK inhibitor U0126, or the mTOR inhibitors Rapamycin, Torin 1, and Torin 2 ranging from 2.54 nM to 50 μM. The graph shows the percentage of nuclear translocation at the different concentrations of each compound (in log of the concentration). The EC50 for each compound was calculated using Prism software (see Materials and methods for details). (E) Immunofluorescence of HEK-293T cells treated with DMSO or Torin 1 and stained with antibodies against endogenous TFEB and the lysosomal protein RagC (green and red, respectively, in the merge). DAPI is included in the merge. Scale bars represent 10 μM. (F) Rag GTPase knockdown induces TFEB nuclear translocation. HeLa cells stably expressing TFEB–3 × FLAG were infected with lentiviruses encoding Short hairpin (Sh-) RNAs targeting luciferase (control) or RagC and RagD mRNAs. In all samples, 96 h post infection, cells were left untreated (N=normal media), starved (S=starved media) or treated with Torin 1 (T=Torin 1) for 4 h and then subjected to nuclear/cytosolic fractionation. TFEB localization was detected with a FLAG antibody, whereas tubulin and H3 were used as controls for the cytosolic and nuclear fraction, respectively; levels of S6K phosphorylation were used to test RagC and RagD knockdown efficiency. (G) Loss of mTORC2 does not affect TFEB phosphorylation. Mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) isolated from Sin1−/− or control embryos (E14.5) were infected with a retrovirus encoding TFEB–3 × FLAG; 48 h post infection, cells were treated with Torin 1 (T) for 4 h where indicated, subjected to nuclear/cytosolic fractionation and immunoblotted for FLAG, tubulin, and H3. (H) Binding of TFEB to mTORC1. HEK-293T cells that express TFEB–3 × FLAG were lysed and subjected to FLAG immunoprecipitation followed by immunoblotting for mTOR, the mTORC1 subunit raptor and the mTORC2 components rictor and Sin1. FLAG–Rap2A served as negative control. Download figure Download PowerPoint We stimulated starved cells, in which TFEB is dephosphorylated and localized to the nucleus, with an amino acid rich medium supplemented with Torin 1 (250 nM), Rapamycin (2.5 μM), or ERK inhibitor U0126 (50 μM). Stimulation of starved cells with nutrients alone induced a significant TFEB molecular weight shift and re-localization to the cytoplasm (Figure 2B). Nutrient stimulation in the presence of the ERK inhibitor U0126 at a concentration of 50 μm induced only a partial TFEB molecular weight shift, suggesting that phosphorylation by ERK partially contributes to TFEB cytoplasmic localization. Treatment with 2.5 μM Rapamycin also resulted in a partial molecular weight shift but did not affect TFEB subcellular localization (Figure 2B), consistent with our previous observations (Settembre et al, 2011). However, Torin 1 (250 nM) treatment entirely prevented the molecular weight shift induced by nutrients and, in turn, resulted in massive TFEB nuclear accumulation. This conclusion is in contrast with a recent study that showed that mTOR-mediated TFEB phosphorylation promoted, rather than inhibited, its nuclear translocation (Pena-Llopis et al, 2011). Instead our data indicate that mTOR is a potent inhibitor of TFEB nuclear translocation and that TFEB is a rapamycin-resistant substrate of mTORC1. In a previous study, we showed that ERK2 phosphorylates TFEB and that starvation and ERK2 inhibition promote TFEB nuclear translocation (Settembre et al, 2011). We tested whether lysosomal stress caused TFEB nuclear translocation also via ERK inhibition. Overnight treatment of HeLa cells with either chloroquine or SalA did not have any effect on ERK activity (Figure 2A), suggesting that mTOR-mediated regulation is predominant. To quantify the effects of ERK and mTOR on TFEB subcellular localization, we developed a cell-based high content assay using stable HeLa cells that overexpress TFEB fused to the green fluorescent protein (TFEB–GFP) (see Materials and methods for details). We tested 10 different concentrations of each inhibitor (U0126, Rapamycin, Torin 1, and Torin 2) ranging from 2.54 nM to 50 μM. Figure 2C and D shows the TFEB nuclear/cytoplasmic distribution for each concentration of each compound in duplicate represented as dose–response curves using a non-linear regression fitting (see Materials and methods for details). Consistent with the above-described data, the most potent compounds that activate TFEB nuclear translocation were Torin 1 (EC50; 147.9 nM) and its analogue Torin 2 (EC50; 1666 nM). ERK inhibitor U0126 showed only a partial effect, while Rapamycin had no effects at any of the concentrations that are routinely used (10 nM–10 μM). Furthermore, Torin 1 treatment potently induced nuclear accumulation of endogenous TFEB in HEK-293T cells (Figure 2E), confirming the observations obtained with the TFEB–GFP construct. As Torin 1 inhibits both mTORC1 and mTORC2 complexes, we next evaluated the contribution of each complex to TFEB regulation. Three main observations suggest that TFEB is predominantly regulated by mTORC1: (1) stimulation of starved cells with amino acids, which activate mTORC1 but not mTORC2, induced an extensive TFEB molecular weight shift, which is highly suggestive of a phosphorylation event (Supplementary Figure S2); (2) knockdown of RagC and RagD, which mediate amino acid signals to mTORC1, caused TFEB nuclear accumulation even in cells kept in full nutrient medium (Figure 2F); (3) in cells with disrupted mTORC2 signalling (Sin1−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs)) (Frias et al, 2006; Jacinto et al, 2006; Yang et al, 2006) TFEB underwent a molecular weight shift and nuclear translocation upon Torin 1 treatment that were similar to control cells (Figure 2G). Together, these data indicate that mTORC1, not mTORC2, regulates TFEB by preventing its nuclear translocation. Finally, co-immunoprecipitation assays in HEK-293T cells expressing TFEB–3 × FLAG showed that TFEB binds both to mTOR and to the mTORC1 subunit raptor but not to the mTORC2 subunits rictor and mSin1, indicating that TFEB and mTORC1 interact both functionally and physically (Figure 2H). mTORC1 controls TFEB subcellular localization via phosphorylation of S142 We previously identified phosphorylation at Serine 142 as a key event for TFEB nuclear translocation during starvation (Settembre et al, 2011). To test whether mTORC1 phosphorylates TFEB at S142, we generated a phosphospecific antibody that recognizes TFEB only when phosphorylated at S142. No signal was detected by this antibody in cells that overexpress the S142A mutant version of TFEB, thus confirming its specificity (Supplementary Figure S3). Using this antibody, we observed that TFEB was no longer phosphorylated at S142 in HeLa cells stably overexpressing TFEB–3 × FLAG and cultured in nutrient-depleted media, consistent with our previous results (Figure 3A). Figure 3.mTORC1 phosphorylates TFEB at serine 142 (S142). (A) Torin 1 induces S142 dephosphorylation. HeLa cells were treated as indicated and total and nuclear extracts were probed with a TFEB p-S142 phosphoantibody and with anti-FLAG antibody. Disappearance of TFEB S142 phosphorylation upon starvation or Torin 1 treatment correlates with accumulation of TFEB in the nuclear fraction. (B) mTORC1 in-vitro kinase assays. Highly purified FLAG–S6K1, TFEB–3 × FLAG, or TFEBS142A–3 × FLAG were incubated with radiolabelled ATP without kinase, with purified mTORC1 or with mTORC1+Torin 1, and analysed by autoradiography. The lower panel shows a FLAG immunoblot of the substrates. (C) Schematic representation of TFEB protein structure with the predicted mTORC1 phosphorylation sites and their conservation among vertebrates (for mTORC1 phophosite prediction see Material and methods). Numbering is according to human isoform 1. (D) Sequence conservation scores of the phosphosites and quantitative agreement between mTOR consensus motif and the sequence around the phosphosites of TFEB. (E) S142 and S211 regulate TFEB localization. FLAG immunostaining (red) of HeLa cells expressing serine-to-alanine mutated versions of TFEB–3 × FLAG. Nuclei were stained with DAPI (blue). Values are means of five fields containing at least 50 transfected cells. Student's t-test (unpaired) ***P<0.001. Scale bars represent 30 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Subsequently, we analysed the levels of S142 phosphorylation in starved cells supplemented with normal media with or without either Torin 1 or Rapamycin. While Torin 1 clearly blunted nutrient-induced S142 phosphorylation, rapamycin did not, suggesting that S142 represents a rapamycin-resistant mTORC1 site (Figure 3A). Indeed, an mTOR kinase assay revealed that mTORC1 phosphorylates highly purified TFEB in vitro with comparable efficiency to other known mTORC1 substrates, and this phosphorylation dropped dramatically when mTORC1 was incubated with the S142A mutant version of TFEB (Figure 3B). These results clearly demonstrate that TFEB is an mTOR substrate and that S142 is a key residue for the phosphorylation of TFEB by mTOR. Recent findings suggest that mTORC1 phosphorylates its target proteins at multiple sites (Hsu et al, 2011; Peterson et al, 2011; Yu et al, 2011). To identify additional serine residues that may be phosphorylated by mTOR, we searched for consensus phosphoacceptor motif for mTORC1 (Hsu et al, 2011) in the coding sequence of TFEB (Figure 3C and D). We mutagenized all TFEB amino acid residues that were putative mTORC1 targets into alanines. We then tested the effects of each of these mutations on TFEB subcellular localization and found that, similarly to S142A, a serine-to-alanine mutation at position 211 (S211A) resulted in a constitutive nuclear localization of TFEB (Figure 3E). Mutants for the other serine residues behaved similarly to wild-type TFEB (Figure 3E; Supplementary Figure S4; Settembre et al, 2011). Together, these data indicate that, in addition to S142, S211 also plays a role in controlling TFEB subcellular localization and suggest that S211 represents an additional target site of mTORC1. mTORC1 and TFEB interact on the lysosomal surface Based on the observations that TFEB is a substrate for mTORC1 (Figure 3A and B) and that the two proteins physically interact (Figure 2H), we tested whether the interaction of TFEB and mTORC1 occurs on the lysosomal membrane. Careful examination of HeLa cells that express TFEB–GFP showed that, while under normal growth conditions the majority of cells displayed a predominantly cytoplasmic TFEB localization, a subset of cells showed clearly discernible intracellular puncta of TFEB–GFP fluorescence, suggesting a lysosomal localization (Supplementary Figure S5). These observations were confirmed in MEFs that transiently express TFEB–GFP along with the late endosomal/lysosomal marker mRFP–Rab7 (Figure 4A). In a subset of cells, TFEB–GFP clearly colocalized with mRFP–Rab7-positive lysosomes and this association persisted over time as lysosomes trafficked inside the cell (Figure 4A and B; Supplementary Movie S1). Figure 4.mTORC1 binds and phosphorylates TFEB on the lysosomal surface. (A) Spinning disk confocal image of a MEF cell that co-expresses TFEB–GFP and mRFP–Rab7 (green and red in the merge, respectively). (B) Time-lapse of TFEB- and Rab7-positive lysosomes from the boxed region in (A). Time intervals are in seconds. (C) Time-lapse analysis of Torin 1 treatment in a MEF cell expressing TFEB–GFP. Arrow indicates the time of Torin 1 addition. Yellow arrowheads indicate Torin 1-induced lysosomal accumulation of TFEB–GFP. Time intervals