DNA double-strand breaks originating from diverse causes in eukaryotic cells are accompanied by the formation of phosphorylated H2AX (γH2AX) foci. Here we show that γH2AX formation is also a cellular response to topoisomerase I cleavage complexes known to induce DNA double-strand breaks during replication. In HCT116 human carcinoma cells exposed to the topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin, the resulting γH2AX formation can be prevented with the phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase-related kinase inhibitor wortmannin; however, in contrast to ionizing radiation, only camptothecin-induced γH2AX formation can be prevented with the DNA replication inhibitor aphidicolin and enhanced with the checkpoint abrogator 7-hydroxystaurosporine. This γH2AX formation is suppressed in ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related) deficient cells and markedly decreased in DNA-dependent protein kinase-deficient cells but is not abrogated in ataxia telangiectasia cells, indicating that ATR and DNA-dependent protein kinase are the kinases primarily involved in γH2AX formation at the sites of replication-mediated DNA double-strand breaks. Mre11- and Nbs1-deficient cells are still able to form γH2AX. However, H2AX-/- mouse embryonic fibroblasts exposed to camptothecin fail to form Mre11, Rad50, and Nbs1 foci and are hypersensitive to camptothecin. These results demonstrate a conserved γH2AX response for double-strand breaks induced by replication fork collision. γH2AX foci are required for recruiting repair and checkpoint protein complexes to the replication break sites. DNA double-strand breaks originating from diverse causes in eukaryotic cells are accompanied by the formation of phosphorylated H2AX (γH2AX) foci. Here we show that γH2AX formation is also a cellular response to topoisomerase I cleavage complexes known to induce DNA double-strand breaks during replication. In HCT116 human carcinoma cells exposed to the topoisomerase I inhibitor camptothecin, the resulting γH2AX formation can be prevented with the phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase-related kinase inhibitor wortmannin; however, in contrast to ionizing radiation, only camptothecin-induced γH2AX formation can be prevented with the DNA replication inhibitor aphidicolin and enhanced with the checkpoint abrogator 7-hydroxystaurosporine. This γH2AX formation is suppressed in ATR (ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related) deficient cells and markedly decreased in DNA-dependent protein kinase-deficient cells but is not abrogated in ataxia telangiectasia cells, indicating that ATR and DNA-dependent protein kinase are the kinases primarily involved in γH2AX formation at the sites of replication-mediated DNA double-strand breaks. Mre11- and Nbs1-deficient cells are still able to form γH2AX. However, H2AX-/- mouse embryonic fibroblasts exposed to camptothecin fail to form Mre11, Rad50, and Nbs1 foci and are hypersensitive to camptothecin. These results demonstrate a conserved γH2AX response for double-strand breaks induced by replication fork collision. γH2AX foci are required for recruiting repair and checkpoint protein complexes to the replication break sites. Compact chromatin can be a structural barrier for DNA processing during replication, transcription, recombination, and DNA repair. Following DNA damage, chromatin must be modified to permit the access of repair proteins to the DNA lesions (1Smerdon M.J. Biochemistry. 1983; 22: 3516-3525Crossref PubMed Scopus (25) Google Scholar). Homologous recombination and non-homologous end joining are the main repair pathways for DNA double-strand breaks (2van Gent D.C. Hoeijmakers J.H. Kanaar R. Nat. Rev. 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Pilch D.R. Olaru A. Eckhaus M. Camerini-Otero R.D. Tessarollo L. Livak F. Manova K. Bonner W.M. Nussenzweig M.C. Nussenzweig A. Science. 2002; 296: 922-927Crossref PubMed Scopus (1141) Google Scholar). An alternative source of DNA double-strand breaks is the conversion of single-strand breaks by advancing replication forks (18Kuzminov A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2001; 98: 8241-8246Crossref PubMed Scopus (297) Google Scholar). DNA single-strand breaks can be produced by a variety of exogenous and endogenous DNA lesions and by the action of DNA topoisomerase I (top1) in DNA containing base damages (abasic sites, mismatches, oxidized bases, carcinogenic adducts, and UV lesions) and preexisting single-strand breaks (discover.nci.nih.gov/pommier/topo1.htm) (19Pourquier P. Pommier Y. Adv. Cancer Res. 2001; 80: 189-216Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 20Pommier Y. Kohlhagen G. Pourquier P. Sayer J.M. Kroth H. Jerina D.M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 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This cleavage intermediate is commonly referred to as a cleavage (or cleavable) complex (Fig. 1B). 3) DNA supercoiling is relaxed by controlled rotation of the 5′-end of the broken DNA around the intact DNA strand (Fig. 1B). 4) After DNA relaxation is complete, the cleaved DNA is religated by nucleophilic attack from the 5′-hydroxyl DNA end and dissociation of the top1 tyrosyl residue from the 3′-end (Fig. 1A) (24Stewart L. Redinbo M.R. Qiu X. Hol W.G.J. Champoux J.J. Science. 1998; 279: 1534-1541Crossref PubMed Scopus (622) Google Scholar). Top1 cleavage complexes are generally widely distributed throughout the genome and normally are transient. Camptothecin and its derivatives (irinotecan and topotecan) are specific top1 inhibitors. Irinotecan has recently been approved by the FDA (Food & Drug Administration) for the treatment of colon cancers (25Stucky-Marshall L. 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Pharmacol. 1994; 29B: 73-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar). Camptothecin and its derivatives trap top1-DNA cleavage complexes by inhibiting the DNA religation step (Fig. 1C) (discover.nci.nih.gov/pommier/topo1.htm) (30Liu L.F. Desai S.D. Li T.K. Mao Y. Sun M. Sim S.P. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2000; 922: 1-10Crossref PubMed Scopus (429) Google Scholar, 31Pommier Y. Tanizawa A. Kohn K.W. Adv. Pharmacol. 1994; 29B: 73-92Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar). Despite the abundance of top1 throughout the cell cycle and in quiescent cells, the cytotoxicity of camptothecin is remarkably limited to replicating cells. For instance, when cells are pretreated with the DNA polymerase inhibitor, aphidicolin, they are protected from the cytotoxicity of camptothecins (32Holm C. Covey J.M. Kerrigan D. Pommier Y. Cancer Res. 1989; 49: 6365-6368PubMed Google Scholar, 33Hsiang Y.H. Lihou M.G. Liu L.F. Cancer Res. 1989; 49: 5077-5082PubMed Google Scholar). The replication dependence for the formation of lethal DNA lesions by camptothecins can be explained by the formation of replication-mediated DNA double-strand breaks (Fig. 1D). When a replication fork proceeds toward a top1 cleavage complex, the extension of the leading strand is blocked at the 5′-end of the cleaved DNA template with replication fork runoff, resulting in a DNA double-strand break (34Strumberg D. Pilon A.A. Smith M. Hickey R. Malkas L. Pommier Y. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000; 20: 3977-3987Crossref PubMed Scopus (287) Google Scholar, 35Snapka R.M. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1986; 6: 4221-4227Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar, 36Tsao Y.P. Russo A. Nyamuswa G. Silber R. Liu L.F. Cancer Res. 1993; 53: 5908-5914PubMed Google Scholar). In this study, we used camptothecin to investigate whether replication-mediated DNA double-strand breaks induce the formation of γH2AX and its concentration in nuclear foci. We also studied the upstream kinases implicated in the phosphorylation of H2AX and the relationship between γH2AX formation and the DNA double-strand break repair and checkpoint proteins, Mre11, Rad50, and Nbs1. Finally, the functional role of γH2AX was studied in H2AX knock-out mouse cells. Cell Culture—Human colon carcinoma HT29 and HCT116 cells were obtained from the Developmental Therapeutics Program, NCI. The SV40-transformed fibroblast cell lines from normal individual (GM00637) and from an ataxia telangiectasia (AT) homozygous patient (GM05849) were obtained from Dr. Michael Kastan (St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN). The SV40-transformed fibroblast cell line from Nijmegen breakage syndrome (NBS) homozygous patient (GM15989) was purchased from Coriell Institute for Medical Research (Camden, NJ). They were grown at 37 °C in the presence of 5% CO2 in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (Invitrogen), 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin. P388 and P388/CPT45 mouse leukemia cells were a kind gift from Drs. Michael R. Mattern and Randal K. Johnson (SmithKline Beecham). They were grown in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin at 37 °C and 5% CO2. M059J/Fus1 and M059J/Fus9 cells were donated from Dr. Cordula U. Kirchgessner (Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA) and were grown in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum containing 400 μg/ml G418 (Invitrogen). Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related kinase dead (ATRkd) cells were donated from Dr. William A. Cliby (Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN) and were incubated in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum containing 400 μg/ml G418. Drugs, Chemicals, and Antibodies—Camptothecin and UCN-01 were provided by the Drug Synthesis Chemistry Branch, Division of Cancer Treatment, NCI. Aphidicolin and wortmannin were purchased form Sigma. Aliquots were stored frozen at 10 mm in Me2SO and diluted further in medium immediately prior to each experiment. Anti-γH2AX mouse monoclonal antibody were purchased from Upstate Biotechnology (Altham, MA). Anti-γH2AX rabbit polyclonal antibody was purchased from Trevigen, (Gaithersburg, MD). Anti-Mre11 and Rad50 antibodies were purchased from Novus (Littleton, CO). Anti-Nbs1 antibody was donated from Dr. Nussenzweig (NCI, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD). FITC-conjugated anti-mouse and anti-rabbit antibodies were purchased from Oncogene Research Products (Oncogene Science Inc., San Diego, CA). The second anti-mouse or anti-rabbit Ig antibodies conjugated with AlexaFluor 488 or 546 were purchased from Molecular Probes, Inc. (Eugene, OR). The second anti-mouse Ig antibody conjugated with horseradish peroxidase was purchased from Amersham Biosciences. IR—Cells growing in T75 flask or on chamber slides were exposed to the indicated dose of IR from a 137Cs source in a Mark I irradiator (J. L. Shepherd and Associates). γH2AX analyses were performed 30 min after irradiation. Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy—Cells were grown on chamber slides. After treatment with indicated doses of camptothecin or IR with or without UCN-01, aphidicolin, or wortmannin at 37 °C, the cell preparations were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 5 min, washed in PBS, permeabilized in 100% methanol at -20 °C for 20 min, washed, blocked with PBS containing 1% BSA and 5% goat serum (Jackson Immunolaboratories, West Grove, PA) for 1 h, incubated with one or two first antibodies at 800-fold dilution for 2 h, washed, incubated with a FITC, AlexaFluor 484, or AlexaFluor 546-conjugated goat anti-rabbit or anti-mouse Ig second antibody at 200-fold dilution for 1 h, and washed in PBS. Some slides were treated with 10 units/ml ribonuclease (Sigma) and stained with propidium iodide. The slides were mounted with mounting medium (Vectashield, Vector Laboratories, Inc., Burlingame, CA) and viewed with a PCM2000 laser scanning confocal microscope (Nikon Co., Tokyo, Japan) using a ×40 or ×100 objectives. The projection was saved as a BMP file. Laser Scanning Cytometry—Slides of cells stained with propidium iodide, the anti-γH2AX first antibody, and the FITC-conjugated second antibody prepared by the protocol as described above were subjected to analysis by laser scanning cytometry (LSC®, CompuCute, Cambridge, MA). The DNA content and intensity of FITC signal from each cell were determined. Western Blot Analysis for γH2AX—Cells were grown to 50–80% confluence when treated with different agents. Cells were scraped and pelleted by centrifugation at 0 °C at 1,000 × g for 15 min. The pellets were washed twice in PBS, homogenized in 0.2 n H2SO4, and centrifuged at 13,000 × g. Histones were pelleted from the supernatant by adding 0.25 volume of 100% (w/v) trichloroacetic acid. The pellets were suspended in 100% ethanol overnight and centrifuged again at 13,000 × g. The pellets were dissolved in ultrapure water, and evaluated for protein concentration (Bio-Rad). Aliquot corresponding to 10 μg of protein was boiled in SDS sample buffer (Tris-glycine SDS sample buffer (twice), Invitrogen) and loaded onto the 4–20% Tris-Glycin precast gel (Novex, San Diego, CA). The separated proteins were transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Immobilon-P, Millipore, Bedford, MA). The membrane was blocked with TBST (10 mm Tris-Cl, pH 7.4, 200 mm NaCl, 0.1% Tween 20) containing 5% nonfat milk for 60 min prior to incubation with 50 ng/ml anti-γH2AX antibody for 2 h. The blots were washed in TBST and then incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse antibody (1/1,000 dilution) and visualized by chemiluminescence using the Supersignal kit (SuperSignal® West Pico chemiluminescent substrate, Pierce). All of the presented data were confirmed in independent experiments. Western Blotting Analysis for Nbs1—Cells were grown to 50–80% confluency when they were subjected to the treatment with different agents. Cells were harvested by scrape and washed twice with PBS, and then they were incubated on ice for 30 min in lysis buffer (0.3% Nonidet P-40, 25 mm NaF, 150 mm NaCl, 2 mm EGTA, 1 mm EDTA, 0.2% Triton X-100, 50 mm Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 5 μg/ml aprotinin, 100 μm leupeptin, 2 mm AEBSF (4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride)). Cell debris was removed by centrifugation at 12,000 × g for 15 min at 4 °C. The supernatant was evaluated for protein concentration and either used immediately for assays or stored at -70 °C. Cell lysates containing 20 μg of total protein were electrophoresed in Tris-Glycin precast gels after being boiled with SDS sample buffer and then were electrophoretically transferred to Immobilon-P membranes for 1 h at 20 V. The membrane was blocked with 5% nonfat milk for 1 h prior to incubation with anti-Nbs1 antibody (1/10,000 dilution) for 2 h. After washing with TBST for 5 min three times, the membranes were incubated with secondary antibody (1/1,000 dilution) and visualized by chemiluminescence using the Supersignal kit. The presented result was confirmed in independent experiments. MTT Assay for Cellular Response of H2AX+/+ and H2AX-/- Cells to Camptothecin—H2AX+/+ and H2AX-/- cells were seeded into 96-well microplates at 1,000 cells/90 μl in each well and incubated overnight. The cells were treated without or with the indicated concentrations of camptothecin for 72 h. After a 72-h incubation, 10 μl of MTT solution (5 mg/ml, Sigma) was added to the each well. 4 h later, the medium was aspirated and 100 μl of Me2SO was added to each well. The optical density of each well (wavelength 520 nm) was measured with a microplate reader (Emax, Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA). The survival of cells at each concentration of the drug was expressed as the percentage ratio of the optical density of cells treated with different concentrations of camptothecin to the mean optical density of the untreated cells. Measurements were performed in triplicate. Data were expressed as the mean ± S.D. The statistical difference in overall cellular responses between the two cell lines was assessed by the two-way ANOVA followed by the Scheffe's multiple comparison test. Difference in the survival ratios between the two cell lines at each concentration point was assessed by the Student's t test. When p value was <0.05, the difference was considered statistically significant. Production of γH2AX by Top1 Cleavage Complex—Fig. 2A shows that when human colon carcinoma HCT116 cells were treated with camptothecin for 1 h, γH2AX foci were observed. γH2AX focus formation increased with camptothecin concentration (Fig. 2A, compare a, b, d, and f) and with increasing the time of exposure (Fig. 2A, compare b with c and d with e) (see panels g in Fig. 2A). Western blotting confirmed the time-dependent and concentration-dependent generation of γH2AX in camptothecin-treated cells (Fig. 2B, a and b). Fig. 2C also shows that γH2AX formation required top1, because camptothecin failed to induce γH2AX in top1-deficient mouse leukemia cells (37Pourquier P. Takebayashi Y. Urasaki Y. Gioffre C. Kohlhagen G. Pommier Y. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2000; 97: 1885-1890Crossref PubMed Scopus (96) Google Scholar). By contrast, γH2AX was generated by IR in both top1-deficient and top1-proficient cells. Together, these results indicate for the first time that top1-mediated DNA lesions induce γH2AX in human and mouse cells in dose-dependent and time-dependent manners. Top1-mediated γH2AX Foci Are Attributed to Replication-mediated DNA Damage—The first suggestion of the replication-dependent induction of γH2AX by camptothecin was the observation that γH2AX focus formation was restricted to a fraction of the camptothecin-treated cells (Figs. 2A and 3A). By contrast, γH2AX focus formation was generally observed in all of the cells irradiated with 10 Gy (Figs. 3A and 4A) as reported previously (9Rogakou E.P. Boon C. Redon C. Bonner W.M. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 146: 905-916Crossref PubMed Scopus (1985) Google Scholar). To determine which fraction of the cells formed γH2AX foci, we performed double staining for both γH2AX and PCNA, because PCNA levels are known to be highest in replicating cells (38Celis J.E. Celis A. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1985; 82: 3262-3266Crossref PubMed Scopus (608) Google Scholar). In the case of camptothecin-treated cells, γH2AX focus formation was restricted to PCNA-positive cells (Fig. 3A, panel a), whereas in the case of IR, γH2AX foci formed both in PCNA-positive and PCNA-negative cells (Fig. 3A, panel b). To quantify these results, slides corresponding to camptothecin (611 cells) or IR treatment (605 cells) were scored and cells were classified into four groups: PCNA-/γH2AX-, PCNA-/γH2AX+, PCNA+/γH2AX-, and PCNA+/γH2AX+ (Fig. 3B). In the case of camptothecin, γH2AX focus formation was observed in 51% of the cells. In these γH2AX-positive cells, 92% were also PCNA-positive. Conversely, 86% PCNA-negative cells were negative for γH2AX. By contrast, in cells treated with IR, the percentage of γH2AX-positive cells was similar in PCNA-positive and PCNA-negative cells (94%) (Fig. 3B).Fig. 4Effects of aphidicolin (APH), UCN-01 (7-hydroxystaurosporine), and wortmannin (Wort) on γH2AX formation by camptothecin (CPT) or IR in HCT116 cells.A, γH2AX focus formation (green) in HCT116 cells treated with CPT (1 μm, for 3 h) (e) or IR (10 Gy) (i) in the absence or presence of 1 μm aphidicolin (APH) (f and j). 0.1 μm UCN-01 (g and k), or 100 μm Wort (h and l). Cells were pretreated with APH, UCN-01, or Wort for 15 min prior to the treatment with CPT or IR. APH, UCN-01, or Wort was kept in the medium during the treatment with camptothecin (3 h) or 30 min after exposure to IR. B, Western blot analyses for the effects of APH, UCN-01, and Wort on γH2AX induction by camptothecin (b) or IR (c) in HCT116 cells. Treatment schedules were the same as described in A.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) The relationship between γH2AX focus formation and DNA replication was further examined by comparing the cellular DNA and γH2AX contents using laser scanning cytometry (Fig. 3C). For camptothecin, cells in S-phase had the highest γH2AX contents, whereas γH2AX was lowest in the cells in the G1 and G2/M phases of the cell cycle. By contrast, for IR, γH2AX was equally distributed in all of the cell cycle phases. We also found that mitotic cells failed to form camptothecin-induced γH2AX foci, whereas γH2AX foci were observed after IR treatment (Fig. 3D, compare a with b) (9Rogakou E.P. Boon C. Redon C. Bonner W.M. J. Cell Biol. 1999; 146: 905-916Crossref PubMed Scopus (1985) Google Scholar). We next determined the effect of pretreatment with aphidicolin, a specific inhibitor of replication polymerases that blocks the formation of camptothecin-induced replication-mediated DNA double-strand breaks in camptothecin-treated cells (34Strumberg D. Pilon A.A. Smith M. Hickey R. Malkas L. Pommier Y. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2000; 20: 3977-3987Crossref PubMed Scopus (287) Google Scholar). Fig. 4A shows that pretreatment with aphidicolin completely suppressed the formation of γH2AX foci by camptothecin (Fig. 4A, compare f with e). By contrast, IR-induced γH2AX foci remained clearly detectable in aphidicolin-treated cells (Fig. 4A, compare j with i). Western blotting analyses confirmed inhibition of γH2AX formation by aphidicolin in camptothecin-treated cells but not in IR-treated cells (Fig. 4B, b and c). These results indicate that camptothecin induces γH2AX focus formation in a DNA replication-dependent manner. The Cell Cycle Checkpoint Modulators, UCN-01 and Wortmannin, Affect the Formation of γH2AX in Response to Top1-mediated and Replication-mediated DNA Damage—UCN-01, an anti-cancer drug in clinical trials, abrogates the S-phase checkpoint induced by camptothecin (39Shao R.G. Cao C.X. Shimizu T. O'Connor P.M. Kohn K.W. Pommier Y. Cancer Res. 1997; 57: 4029-4035PubMed Google Scholar). Fig. 4A (panel c) shows that UCN-01 by itself did not induce γH2AX foci. However, pretreatment with UCN-01 markedly enhanced γH2AX focus formation in camptothecin-treated cells but not in cells exposed to IR (Fig. 4A, compare g with e and k with i). Western blotting analysis also demonstrated that UCN-01 enhanced γH2AX generation by camptothecin (Fig. 4B, b). These results are consistent with the findings that camptothecin-induced γH2AX formation by camptothecin is replication-dependent, because γH2AX formation increased in the absence of replication checkpoint (i.e. in UCN-01-treated cells) (see "Discussion"). We next determined the effect of wortmannin, a non-competitive and irreversible inhibitor of phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase-related kinases (PIKKs) (40Sarkaria J.N. Tibbetts R.S. Busby E.C. Kennedy A.P. Hill D.E. Abraham R.T. Cancer Res. 1998; 58: 4375-4382PubMed Google