Increasing evidence suggests that lysosomal proteases are actively involved in apoptosis. Using HeLa cells as the model system, we show that selective lysosome disruption with l-leucyl-l-leucine methyl ester results in apoptosis, characterized by translocation of lysosomal proteases into the cytosol and by the cleavage of a proapoptotic Bcl-2-family member Bid. Apoptosis and Bid cleavage, but not translocation of lysosomal proteases to the cytosol, could be prevented by 15 μml-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamide, an inhibitor of papain-like cysteine proteases. Incubation of cells with 15 μmN-benzoyloxycarbonyl-VAD-fluoromethyl ketone prevented apoptosis but not Bid cleavage, suggesting that cathepsin-mediated apoptosis in this system is caspase-dependent. In vitro experiments performed at neutral pH showed that papain-like cathepsins B, H, L, S, and K cleave Bid predominantly at Arg65 or Arg71. No Bid cleavage was observed with cathepsins C and X or the aspartic protease cathepsin D. Incubation of full-length Bid treated with cathepsins B, H, L, and S resulted in rapid cytochrome c release from isolated mitochondria. Thus, Bid may be an important mediator of apoptosis induced by lysosomal disruption. Increasing evidence suggests that lysosomal proteases are actively involved in apoptosis. Using HeLa cells as the model system, we show that selective lysosome disruption with l-leucyl-l-leucine methyl ester results in apoptosis, characterized by translocation of lysosomal proteases into the cytosol and by the cleavage of a proapoptotic Bcl-2-family member Bid. Apoptosis and Bid cleavage, but not translocation of lysosomal proteases to the cytosol, could be prevented by 15 μml-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamide, an inhibitor of papain-like cysteine proteases. Incubation of cells with 15 μmN-benzoyloxycarbonyl-VAD-fluoromethyl ketone prevented apoptosis but not Bid cleavage, suggesting that cathepsin-mediated apoptosis in this system is caspase-dependent. In vitro experiments performed at neutral pH showed that papain-like cathepsins B, H, L, S, and K cleave Bid predominantly at Arg65 or Arg71. No Bid cleavage was observed with cathepsins C and X or the aspartic protease cathepsin D. Incubation of full-length Bid treated with cathepsins B, H, L, and S resulted in rapid cytochrome c release from isolated mitochondria. Thus, Bid may be an important mediator of apoptosis induced by lysosomal disruption. Apoptosis is the major mechanism by which multicellular organisms remove superfluous, infected, damaged, or potentially dangerous cells (1Hengartner M.O. Nature. 2000; 407: 770-776Google Scholar). Caspases, a family of cysteine proteases that reside in an inactive zymogen form in the cytosol of virtually every cell, play a major role in apoptotic execution. Caspase activation, a critical event in apoptosis progression, can be achieved in several ways, including the extrinsic pathway, characterized by death receptor-mediated recruitment and activation of apical caspase-8, and the intrinsic pathway, characterized by assembly of cytosolic (APAF-1) and mitochondrial (cytochrome c) factors with subsequent activation of apical caspase-9 (2Adrain C. Martin S.J. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2001; 26: 390-397Google Scholar). These two pathways converge at the level of activation of executioner caspases-3 and -7 (1Hengartner M.O. Nature. 2000; 407: 770-776Google Scholar). The extrinsic and the intrinsic pathways are connected through Bid, a pro-apoptotic BH3-only Bcl-2 family member. In certain cell types, caspase-8 has been shown to cleave Bid after Asp59, thereby removing the two N-terminal helices and converting Bid from a latent to a strongly proapoptotic molecule, capable of inducing cytochrome c release through the action of Bax or Bak and subsequent activation of caspase-9 (3Borner C. Mol. Immunol. 2003; 39: 615-647Google Scholar). Bid is also cleaved during apoptosis by granzyme B, a serine protease from cytotoxic T lymphocytes (4Heibein J.A. Gopsing I.S. Barry M. Pinkoski M.J. Shore G.C. Green D.R. Bleackley R.C. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 192: 1391-1402Google Scholar, 5Sutton V.R. Davis J.E. Cancilla M. Johnstone R.W. Ruefli A.A. Sedelies K. Browne K.A. Trapani J.A. J. Exp. Med. 2000; 192: 1403-1414Google Scholar); by calpains (6Chen M. Hauping H. Shixing Z. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Gottlieb R.A. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 30724-30728Google Scholar, 7Mandic A. Viktorsson K. Strandberg L. Heiden T. Hansson J. Linder S. Shoshan M.C. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2002; 22: 3003-3013Google Scholar, 8Gil-Parrado S. Fernández-Montalván A. Assfalg-Machleidt I. Popp O. Bestvater F. Holloschi A. Knoch T.A. Auerswald E.A. Welsh K. Reed J.C. Fritz H. Fuentes-Prior P. Spiess E. Salvesen G.S. Machleidt W. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 27217-27226Google Scholar); and by lysosomal proteases (9Stoka V. Turk B. Schendel S.L. Kim T.H. Cirman T. Snipas S.J. Ellerby L.M. Bredesen D. Freeze H. Abrahamson M. Brömme D. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Yin X.M. Turk V. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 3149-3157Google Scholar). Although all of the cleavage sites differ from the caspase-8 cleavage site, they map to the same region of Bid, corresponding to a loop between α-helices 2 and 3. In addition to caspases, increasing evidence suggests a role for lysosomal proteases in apoptosis, including clearance of infected cells and various pathologies, such as cancer and neurodegeneration (reviewed in Refs. 10Turk B. Stoka V. Rozman-Pungerčar J. Cirman T. Droga Mazovec. G. Orešić K. Turk V. Biol. Chem. 2002; 383: 1035-1044Google Scholar and 11Leist M. Jäättelä M. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 2: 589-598Google Scholar). Lysosomes contain a number of proteases, among them the aspartic protease cathepsin D and the cysteine protease cathepsin B, which are the most abundant and have most often been reported to be involved in apoptosis induction (12Roberg K. Öllinger K. Am. J. Pathol. 1998; 152: 1151-1156Google Scholar, 13Kågedal K. Zhao M. Svensson I. Brunk U.T. Biochem. J. 2001; 359: 335-343Google Scholar, 14Roberg K. Kågedal K. Öllinger K. Am. J. Pathol. 2002; 161: 89-96Google Scholar, 15Guicciardi M.E. Deussing J. Miyoshi H. Bronk S.F. Svingen P.A. Peters C. Kaufmann S.H. Gores G.J. J. Clin. Invest. 2000; 106: 1127-1137Google Scholar, 16Guicciardi M.E. Miyoshi H. Bronk S.F. Gores G.J. Am. J. Pathol. 2001; 159: 2045-2054Google Scholar, 17Foghsgaard L. Wissing D. Mauch D. Lademann U. Bastholm L. Boes M. Elling F. Leist M. Jäättelä M. J. Cell Biol. 2001; 153: 999-1009Google Scholar). The other abundant lysosomal proteases are the family of papain-like cathepsins related to cathepsin B (cathepsins H, L, K, S, C, X, V, W, F, and O; Refs. 18Turk B. Turk D. Turk V. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2000; 1477: 98-111Google Scholar and 19Turk V. Turk B. Turk D. EMBO J. 2001; 20: 4629-4633Google Scholar). During apoptosis induced by sphingosine and lysosomotropic reagents, cathepsins were found to be translocated to cytosol prior to mitochondrial damage and cytochrome c release, thereby inducing apoptosis by mechanisms that have not yet been clarified (reviewed in Refs. 10Turk B. Stoka V. Rozman-Pungerčar J. Cirman T. Droga Mazovec. G. Orešić K. Turk V. Biol. Chem. 2002; 383: 1035-1044Google Scholar and 11Leist M. Jäättelä M. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 2: 589-598Google Scholar). In some of the models, cathepsins have been suggested to act independently of caspases, whereas in other models apoptosis was suggested to be caspase-mediated (reviewed in Refs. 10Turk B. Stoka V. Rozman-Pungerčar J. Cirman T. Droga Mazovec. G. Orešić K. Turk V. Biol. Chem. 2002; 383: 1035-1044Google Scholar and 11Leist M. Jäättelä M. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2001; 2: 589-598Google Scholar). Direct caspase activation by the cathepsins is unlikely because a number of the cathepsins failed to activate proapoptotic caspases-3 and -7 (9Stoka V. Turk B. Schendel S.L. Kim T.H. Cirman T. Snipas S.J. Ellerby L.M. Bredesen D. Freeze H. Abrahamson M. Brömme D. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Yin X.M. Turk V. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 3149-3157Google Scholar, 20Schotte P. Van Criekinge W. Van de Craen M. Van Loo G. Desmedt M. Grooten J. Cornelissen M. De Ridder L. Vandekerckhove J. Fiers W. Vandenabeele P. Beyaert R. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1998; 251: 379-387Google Scholar). Therefore, additional cytosolic factor(s) were suggested to be involved (15Guicciardi M.E. Deussing J. Miyoshi H. Bronk S.F. Svingen P.A. Peters C. Kaufmann S.H. Gores G.J. J. Clin. Invest. 2000; 106: 1127-1137Google Scholar). One of the most attractive cytosolic targets of the cathepsins is Bid, which has already been suggested to be an important mediator of lysosomal protease-mediated apoptosis (9Stoka V. Turk B. Schendel S.L. Kim T.H. Cirman T. Snipas S.J. Ellerby L.M. Bredesen D. Freeze H. Abrahamson M. Brömme D. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Yin X.M. Turk V. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 3149-3157Google Scholar, 21Reiners Jr., J.J. Caruso J.A. Mathieu P. Chelladurai B. Yin X.-M. Kessel D. Cell Death Differ. 2002; 9: 934-944Google Scholar). However, the lysosomal protease(s) performing the cleavage have yet to be identified. Our studies were therefore aimed toward understanding the molecular mechanisms by which lysosomal proteases induce apoptosis with the major focus on Bid. Using the lysosomotropic agent LeuLeuOMe, 1The abbreviations used are: LeuLeuOMel-leucyl-l-leucine methyl esterAC27Pacetyl-calpastatin 27-peptideE-64l-trans-epoxysuccinyl-Leu-amido-(4-guanidino) butaneE-64dl-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamideZN-benzoyloxycarbonylfmkfluoromethyl ketonePARPpoly(ADP-ribose) polymeraseCHAPS3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylamino]-1-propanesulphonate.1The abbreviations used are: LeuLeuOMel-leucyl-l-leucine methyl esterAC27Pacetyl-calpastatin 27-peptideE-64l-trans-epoxysuccinyl-Leu-amido-(4-guanidino) butaneE-64dl-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamideZN-benzoyloxycarbonylfmkfluoromethyl ketonePARPpoly(ADP-ribose) polymeraseCHAPS3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylamino]-1-propanesulphonate. we show that disruption of lysosomes results in translocation of lysosomal proteases to the cytosol and induction of apoptosis through a caspase-dependent mechanism, involving Bid cleavage by papain-like cysteine proteases. To identify the cleaving protease(s), a detailed investigation has been performed using cathepsins B, H, L, S, K, X, C, and D. l-leucyl-l-leucine methyl ester acetyl-calpastatin 27-peptide l-trans-epoxysuccinyl-Leu-amido-(4-guanidino) butane l-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamide N-benzoyloxycarbonyl fluoromethyl ketone poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylamino]-1-propanesulphonate. l-leucyl-l-leucine methyl ester acetyl-calpastatin 27-peptide l-trans-epoxysuccinyl-Leu-amido-(4-guanidino) butane l-trans-epoxysuccinyl(OEt)-Leu-3-methylbutylamide N-benzoyloxycarbonyl fluoromethyl ketone poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylamino]-1-propanesulphonate. Proteins—Recombinant human cathepsins B, L, and K, human caspase-8, and mouse Bid were prepared according to published procedures (22Kuhelj R. Dolinar M. Pungerčar J. Turk V. Eur. J. Biochem. 1995; 229: 533-539Google Scholar, 23Barlič-Maganja D. Dolinar M. Turk V. Biol. Chem. 1998; 379: 1449-1452Google Scholar, 24D'Alessio K.J. McQueney M.S. Brun K.A. Orsini M.J. Debouck C.M. Protein Expression Purif. 1999; 15: 213-220Google Scholar, 25Stennicke H.R. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 25719-25722Google Scholar, 26Schendel S.L. Azimov R. Pawlowski K. Godzik A. Kagan B.L. Reed J.C. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 21932-21936Google Scholar), whereas cathepsins H, X, and C were purified from porcine liver (27Gunčar G. Podobnik M. Pungerčar J. Strukelj B. Turk V. Turk D. Structure. 1998; 6: 51-61Google Scholar), human liver (28Klemenčič I. Karaoglanovic-Carmona A. Juliano M.A. Juliano L. Gunčar G. Turk D. Krizaj I. Turk V. Turk B. Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 5404-5412Google Scholar), and human kidney (29Dolenc I. Turk B. Kos J. Turk V. FEBS Lett. 1996; 392: 277-280Google Scholar), respectively. All of the cathepsins were active site-titrated as described elsewhere (30Rozman-Pungerčar J. Kopitar-Jerala N. Bogyo M. Turk D. Vasiljeva O. Stefe I. Vandenabeele P. Brömme D. Puizdar V. Fonovič M. Trstenjak-Prebanda M. Dolenc I. Turk V. Turk B. Cell Death Differ. 2003; 10: 881-888Google Scholar). Materials—Human embryonic kidney cell line 293 and human adenocarcinoma cell line HeLa were purchased from ATCC. Polyclonal anti-Bid and anti-cathepsin L antibodies were prepared using standard protocols. Monoclonal antibodies specifically recognizing the cleaved form of PARP were from Promega, and cytochrome c antibodies were from PharMingen. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit or rabbit anti-mouse IgG antibodies, fetal calf serum, Percoll, p-iodonitrotetrazolium violet, 4-methylumbelliferyl-2-acetamido-2-dexy-d-glucopyranoside, cytochrome c, E-64, E-64d, and pepstatin A were obtained from Sigma. The caspase substrate acetyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-7-amino-4-trifluorometylcoumarin, the calpain-specific inhibitor AC27P, and the lysosomotropic reagent LeuLeuOMe were purchased from Bachem. All of the nucleotide primers were purchased from MWG Biotech AG. All other chemicals were of analytical grade. Cell Culture and Apoptosis Triggering—HEK 293 and HeLa cells were grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (Invitrogen), supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal calf serum, streptomycin, and penicillin in 5% CO2 atmosphere at 37 °C. HeLa cells from confluent 10-cm dishes were split in a 1:6 ratio to yield 6 × 106/well of 6-well plates. After 10 h E-64d or Z-VAD-fmk was added to a final concentration of 15 μm, followed by overnight incubation. The next day LeuLeuOMe was added in a negligible volume to a final concentration of 400-500 μm. After 24 h the cells were viewed by light microscopy (Olympus M021, magnification 40) and harvested by trypsinization. In control experiments, Me2SO was added in a volume corresponding to the volume of E-64d. Because E-64 and its derivatives also inhibit calpain (30Rozman-Pungerčar J. Kopitar-Jerala N. Bogyo M. Turk D. Vasiljeva O. Stefe I. Vandenabeele P. Brömme D. Puizdar V. Fonovič M. Trstenjak-Prebanda M. Dolenc I. Turk V. Turk B. Cell Death Differ. 2003; 10: 881-888Google Scholar), an additional experiment was performed using 50 μm specific calpain inhibitor AC27P (8Gil-Parrado S. Fernández-Montalván A. Assfalg-Machleidt I. Popp O. Bestvater F. Holloschi A. Knoch T.A. Auerswald E.A. Welsh K. Reed J.C. Fritz H. Fuentes-Prior P. Spiess E. Salvesen G.S. Machleidt W. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 27217-27226Google Scholar). Cell Extracts—Initially, the cells were washed twice in ice-cold phosphate-buffered saline. After this step, the procedures for preparing cytosolic or total cell extracts differed. To prepare cytosolic extracts, the cells were washed twice in the isotonic buffer (200 mm mannitol, 70 mm sucrose, 1 mm EGTA, 10 mm HEPES) containing a protease inhibitor mixture including pepstatin A, aprotinin, leupeptin, E-64, and bestatin (Sigma). The cells were homogenized by 20 passages through a 25 G (0.5 × 16) needle. Nuclei and unbroken cells were removed by centrifugation at 500 × g for 5 min, followed by two consecutive centrifugation steps, the first at 10,000 × g for 5 min and the second at 100,000 × g for 1 h. Use of the inhibitors ensured that any unwanted proteolysis, especially the proteolysis by papain-like cathepsins, was prevented during the preparation of the extracts. Total cell extracts were prepared from cells by lysing them in 50 μlof RIPA buffer (50 mm Tris, pH 8.0, 100 mm NaCl, 0.1% (w/v) SDS, 1% (v/v) Nonidet P-40, 0.5% (w/v) deoxycholic acid, 1 mm EDTA). Following 10 min of incubation on ice, insoluble material was removed by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm for 10 min. In both cases, the supernatants were transferred to fresh test tubes and either used immediately or stored at -80 °C. Total protein concentration was determined using the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad). Immunodetections—After treatment, aliquots of cell lysates (80 μg of protein based on the Bradford assay) were resolved by 15% SDS-PAGE. Bid, tBid, cathepsin L, the cleaved form of PARP, and cytochrome c were then determined by Western blotting and development with ECL according to the manufacturer's instructions (Amersham Biosciences). Flow Cytometry—To measure phosphatidylserine exposure, 106 HeLa cells were labeled with annexinV-PE and 7-amino-actinomycin D (BD Biosciences) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The cells were then subjected to fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis using a FACScalibur flow cytometer (BD Biosciences) and CellQuest software. Measurement of DEVD-ase Activity—Cell lysates (100 μg of protein) were transferred into the 96-well plate and filled to the final volume of 90 μl with the caspase buffer (100 mm HEPES, 200 mm NaCl, 0.2% (w/v) CHAPS, 20% (w/v) sucrose, 2 mm EDTA, 20 mm dithiothreitol, pH 7.0). Following 15 min of incubation at 37 °C, acetyl-DEVD-7-amino-4-trifluorometylcoumarin was added to a final concentration of 100 μm, and DEVD-ase activity was measured continuously in an LS50B fluorimeter with plate reader attachment (PerkinElmer Life Sciences) at excitation and emission wavelengths of 400 and 505 nm, respectively. Isolation of Mouse Liver Lysosomes—Lysosomes were isolated from mouse liver essentially as described previously (9Stoka V. Turk B. Schendel S.L. Kim T.H. Cirman T. Snipas S.J. Ellerby L.M. Bredesen D. Freeze H. Abrahamson M. Brömme D. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Yin X.M. Turk V. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 3149-3157Google Scholar). The fractions collected were assayed for mitochondrial and lysosomal contents using p-iodonitrotetrazolium reductase and β-hexosaminidase as markers (31Storrie B. Madden E.A. Methods Enzymol. 1990; 182: 203-225Google Scholar, 32Mehta D.P. Ichikawa M. Salimath P.V. Etchison J.R. Haak R. Manzi A. Freeze H.H. J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271: 10897-10903Google Scholar), respectively. The fractions containing pure lysosomes were pooled and washed twice in an equal volume of lysosomal buffer (250 mm sucrose, 20 mm HEPES, pH 7.2). The lysosomes were then aliquoted and stored at -80 °C for further use. Lysosomal extracts were prepared from lysosomes by three cycles of freezing and thawing. Pellets containing lysosomal membranes were removed by 5 min of centrifugation at 14,000 rpm. The supernatant was kept on ice and used freshly. In Vitro Cleavage of Bid and Analysis of Cleavage Products—To prevent unwanted inactivation, the enzymes were kept in their normal storage buffers (100 mm phosphate buffer, pH 6.0, for lysosomal extract and cathepsins B and C; 100 mm phosphate buffer, pH 6.8, for cathepsin H; 100 mm phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, for cathepsin S; 50 mm acetate buffer, pH 5.1, for cathepsin X; 340 mm acetate buffer, pH 5.5, for cathepsins L and K; and 340 mm acetate buffer, pH 4.2, for cathepsin D) containing 1 mm EDTA. Cathepsins and lysosomal extracts were then added in a small volume (≤5 μl) to the same buffers with pH raised to pH 7.2, containing 2 mm dithiothreitol (final concentration) and 20 μm Bid to a final volume of 35 μl. As verified in separate experiments, this ensured that the final pH (7.2) remained unchanged. Caspase-8 incubated in caspase buffer (see above) was used as a positive control. Following 1 h of incubation at 37 °C, the reactions were terminated by the addition of 5 μl of 1 m dithiothreitol and SDS-PAGE loading buffer and boiling for 5 min. In another experiment, the lysosomal extracts were pretreated with E-64 (final concentration, 20-300 μm) and/or pepstatin A (500 μm) for 30 min prior to addition of Bid. The reaction products were analyzed by SDS-PAGE on 15% gels, followed by Coomassie Blue staining or, alternatively, transferred to the polyvinylidene difluoride membranes, stained for 1 min with Coomassie Blue (Bio-Rad), destained, and washed overnight with distilled water. The appropriate bands were then excised, and the N-terminal sequences of the Bid cleavage products were determined by Applied Biosystems 492 amino acid sequencer. Isolation of Mouse Heart Mitochondria—Mitochondria were isolated from murine hearts using the modified procedure of Ott et al. (33Ott M. Robertson J.D. Gogvadze V. Zhivotovsky B. Orreius S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2002; 599: 1259-1263Google Scholar). The mitochondria were resuspended in an equal volume of MSH buffer (250 mm sucrose, 10 mm HEPES, 2 mm KH2PO4, 5 mm sodium succinate, 10 mm EGTA, 0.1 mm phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride, 4 mm MgCl2), pH 7.5, kept on ice, and used within 30 min to minimize the risk of disruption. In Vitro Assay for Cytochrome c Release from Purified Mitochondria— Recombinant Bid (7 μg) was incubated with cathepsins B, L, H, S, and K (final concentrations, 50 nm to 3 μm) in 5 mm HEPES buffer, pH 7.2, containing 250 mm mannitol, 0.5 mm EGTA, 0.1% (w/v) bovine serum albumin and 5 mm dithiothreitol, in a final volume of 30 μl for 40 min at 37 °C prior to the addition of fresh murine mitochondria (20 μg of protein). Following an additional 5-min incubation at 37 °C, the supernatants were separated from mitochondria by centrifugation at 9000 rpm for 5 min at 4 °C. Cytochrome c was then detected by Western blotting. In a control experiment, a pellet containing mitochondria was treated with 2% (v/v) Triton X-100. Preparation of Bid Variants in pcDNA3—Full-length Bid (flBid) was excised from pGEX4Ti vector using EcoRI and XhoI sites and cloned into the pcDNA3 vector at the same sites. Truncated Bid variants were generated by PCR using primers that bound to flBid DNA. The following primers were used: 5′-AGCGAATTCATGTGGGAGGCAGA-3′ for tBid-Tyr47, 5′-TTGGAATTCATGACAGACGGCAGC-3′ for tBid-Gln57, 5′-ATAGAATTCATGGGCAGCCAGGC-3′ for tBid-Asp59, 5′-TCCGAATTCATGTCCTTCAACC-3′ for tBid-Arg65, and 5′-TCGGAATTCATGATAGAGCCAGA-3′ for tBid-Arg71. The reverse primer was always 5′-CCGCTCGAGTCAGTCCATC-3′. All of the sequences were verified by DNA sequencing using an Abi Prism 310 automated DNA sequencer (PerkinElmer Life Sciences). The fragments were then inserted into pcDNA3 using EcoRI and XhoI sites. To check whether the new constructs generate functional protein, tBid and flBid proteins were expressed in vitro using the Promega TnT-coupled transcription-translation system and radiolabeling with [35S]methionine (Amersham Biosciences). The efficiency of expression was monitored by analyzing the translate by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. Transfections of Cells with tBid Variants—Transfections of HEK 293 cells were performed in 12-well plates. The cells were transfected with equal amounts of pcDNA3/tBid constructs using LipofectAMINE™ 2000 (Invitrogen) according to the instructions of the manufacturer. pcDNA3 and pcDNA3/flBid were used as negative controls, whereas the pcDNA3/caspase-8 construct was used as a positive control. Transfection efficacy was controlled by cotransfections with EGFP. Characterization of LeuLeuOMe-triggered Cell Death in HeLa Cells—LeuLeuOMe has been shown to induce apoptosis in a variety of cells, including natural killer cells and macrophages, by selective disruption of lysosomes. The compound enters lysosomes by endocytosis. LeuLeuOMe accumulates in lysosomes followed by conversion to its membranolytic form (LeuLeu)n-OMe (n ≥ 3) by the transesterase activity of another lysosomal protease, cathepsin C (dipeptidyl peptidase I) (34Thiele D.L. Lipsky P.E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1990; 87: 83-87Google Scholar). Finally, lysosomal membrane integrity is lost, resulting in caspase activation and apoptosis (35Uchimoto T. Nohara H. Kamehara R. Iwamura M. Watanabe N. Kobayashi Y. Apoptosis. 1999; 4: 357-362Google Scholar). Various cells exhibit different sensitivity toward LeuLeuOMe, the most sensitive being the cytotoxic lymphocytes (36Thiele D.L. Lipsky P.E. J. Immunol. 1992; 148: 3950-3957Google Scholar, 37Kobayashi Y. Takasaki A. Kurosaka K. Sakurai Y. Iwamura M. Watanabe N. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000; 272: 687-690Google Scholar). Because of their reasonably high content of Bid and various cathepsins including cathepsin C, we chose HeLa cells as a cellular model to investigate this process. Initially, LeuLeuOMe in the concentration range 50-1000 μm was tested for its ability to induce cell death. The majority of cells died in an apoptotic manner at LeuLeuOMe concentrations of ≥300 μm with an optimum at 400-500 μm. This is in agreement with previous results on human myeloma tumor cell lines U937, HL60, and THP-1 (200-500 μm; Refs. 35Uchimoto T. Nohara H. Kamehara R. Iwamura M. Watanabe N. Kobayashi Y. Apoptosis. 1999; 4: 357-362Google Scholar and 36Thiele D.L. Lipsky P.E. J. Immunol. 1992; 148: 3950-3957Google Scholar). However, at LeuLeuOMe concentrations ≥750 μm, the cells died with necrotic morphology without any increase in caspase activity (not shown). Therefore, all further experiments were performed at LeuLeuOMe concentrations of 400-500 μm. Treatment of HeLa cells with 500 μm LeuLeuOMe for 24 h resulted in detachment of cells from the culture dishes and major morphological changes, such as considerable cell shrinkage and rounding (Fig. 1A). All of the morphological changes were substantially prevented by pretreatment of cells with a general inhibitor of cysteine cathepsins E-64d at 15 μm or with the pancaspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk, also at 15 μm (Fig. 1A), suggesting involvement of both cysteine cathepsins and caspases in the process. In the next step, the cells were tested for the surface exposure of phosphatidylserine, another marker of apoptosis, by flow cytometry. Following LeuLeuOMe treatment 62.5% of cells were apoptotic, which could be prevented by pretreating cells with 15 μm E-64d (11.8% apoptotic cells) or with 15 μm Z-VAD-fmk (16.9% apoptotic cells). In a control experiment 10.8% of cells were apoptotic, similar to the result in the presence of E-64d (11.5%) or Z-VAD-fmk (7.5%) alone, which were used as negative controls (Fig. 1B). Similarly, DEVD-ase activity (a reporter of general caspase activation) was highly elevated in LeuLeuOMe-treated cells (Fig. 1C), in agreement with a major role of caspases in this type of cell death (35Uchimoto T. Nohara H. Kamehara R. Iwamura M. Watanabe N. Kobayashi Y. Apoptosis. 1999; 4: 357-362Google Scholar). Caspase-3 activation was confirmed by immunodetection of cleaved PARP using the antibodies that specifically recognize the caspase-3-generated truncated form of PARP in LeuLeuOMe-treated cells only (Fig. 1D). However, caspase activity could be ablated by pretreating cells either with 15 μm E-64d or 15 μm Z-VAD-fmk (Fig. 1, C and D) but not by AC27P (Fig. 1C), thereby suggesting that calpains are not implicated in this apoptosis model. Finally, translocation of lysosomal proteases to the cytosol was confirmed by Western blot analysis, demonstrating the presence of active cathepsin L in the cytosolic extract of HeLa cells treated with LeuLeuOMe (Fig. 1E). Significantly, none of the inhibitors used (E-64d or Z-VAD-fmk) prevented translocation of cathepsin L to the cytosol, strongly suggesting that active cathepsins are required in the cytosol to activate caspases (Fig. 1E). Interestingly, in all of the control cells but not in LeuLeuOMe-treated cells, a small band with a slightly higher molecular mass (∼33 kDa), probably corresponding to the inactive zymogen form of cathepsin L, was observed (Fig. 1E). LeuLeuOMe-triggered Apoptosis in HeLa Cells Is Accompanied by Bid Cleavage—The finding that cathepsins act upstream of caspases in HeLa cells, where apoptosis was triggered by selective lysosome disruption, raised the question about the molecular mechanism of caspase activation in this model. We focused our studies on Bid, which has been suggested to be a sensor of lysosomal proteases (9Stoka V. Turk B. Schendel S.L. Kim T.H. Cirman T. Snipas S.J. Ellerby L.M. Bredesen D. Freeze H. Abrahamson M. Brömme D. Krajewski S. Reed J.C. Yin X.M. Turk V. Salvesen G.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 3149-3157Google Scholar, 21Reiners Jr., J.J. Caruso J.A. Mathieu P. Chelladurai B. Yin X.-M. Kessel D. Cell Death Differ. 2002; 9: 934-944Google Scholar). First, the presence of Bid in untreated HeLa cells was confirmed, and Bid was found as a full-length form migrating at ∼22 kDa (Fig. 2). Next, HeLa cells were treated for 24 h with LeuLeuOMe (200-400 μm), which resulted in partial cleavage of Bid and appearance of another band migrating at ∼15 kDa. Generation of this truncated (tBid) variant was completely abolished in the presence of E-64d but not Z-VAD-fmk, suggesting that papain-like cathepsins were directly or indirectly responsible for the cleavage. In Vitro Cleavage of Recombinant Bid—Although inhibition of cathepsins blocked Bid cleavage induced by lysosomotropic agents in HeLa cells, this does not necessary indicate that cathepsins directly cleave Bid. To address this question, in vitro experiments were performed using recombinant mouse Bid. First, recombinant Bid was incubated at neutral pH with lysosomal extracts, containing 2.3 μm cathepsins as judged on the basis of E-64 titration, resulting in complete Bid degradation (Fig. 3A). Bid degradation was prevented by preincubation with E-64 (≥15 μm), suggesting that papain-like cathepsins are responsible for the cleavage, in agreement with results in our cellular model. In contrast, preincubation of the extracts with pepstatin (500 μm) only partially protected Bid against degradation, suggesting a minor role, if any, for the cathepsin D and related aspartic proteases. Second, to identify Bid cleavage sites by the lysosomal proteases, the experiment was repeated with a lower concentration of lysosomal extracts (not shown). A single cleavage product was found and analyzed by electroblotting and N-terminal