Interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) are critical components of virus-induced immune activation and type I interferon regulation. IRF3 and IRF7 are activated in response to a variety of viruses or after engagement of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 and TLR4 by double-stranded RNA and lipopolysaccharide, respectively. The activation of IRF5, is much more restricted. Here we show that in contrast to IRF3 and IRF7, IRF5 is not a target of the TLR3 signaling pathway but is activated by TLR7 or TLR8 signaling. We also demonstrate that MyD88, interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase 1, and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 are required for the activation of IRF5 and IRF7 in the TLR7 signaling pathway. Moreover, ectopic expression of IRF5 enabled type I interferon production in response to TLR7 signaling, whereas knockdown of IRF5 by small interfering RNA reduced type I interferon induction in response to the TLR7 ligand, R-848. IRF5 and IRF7, therefore, emerge from these studies as critical mediators of TLR7 signaling. Interferon regulatory factors (IRFs) are critical components of virus-induced immune activation and type I interferon regulation. IRF3 and IRF7 are activated in response to a variety of viruses or after engagement of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 3 and TLR4 by double-stranded RNA and lipopolysaccharide, respectively. The activation of IRF5, is much more restricted. Here we show that in contrast to IRF3 and IRF7, IRF5 is not a target of the TLR3 signaling pathway but is activated by TLR7 or TLR8 signaling. We also demonstrate that MyD88, interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase 1, and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 are required for the activation of IRF5 and IRF7 in the TLR7 signaling pathway. Moreover, ectopic expression of IRF5 enabled type I interferon production in response to TLR7 signaling, whereas knockdown of IRF5 by small interfering RNA reduced type I interferon induction in response to the TLR7 ligand, R-848. IRF5 and IRF7, therefore, emerge from these studies as critical mediators of TLR7 signaling. Members of the Toll-like receptor family are essential recognition and signaling components of mammalian anti-viral host defense (1Janeway Jr., C.A. Medzhitov R. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2002; 20: 197-216Crossref PubMed Scopus (6190) Google Scholar). TLR3, 1The abbreviations used are: TLR, Toll-like receptor; VSV, vesicular stomatitis virus; pDC, plasmacytoid dendritic cell; IFN, interferon; IRF, interferon regulatory factor; dsRNA, double-stranded RNA; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; NDV, Newcastle disease virus; SeV, Sendai virus; IKK, IκB kinase; siRNA, small interfering RNA; IRAK, interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase 1; TRAF, tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor; DN, dominant negative; UAS, upstream activation sequence; GFP, green fluorescent protein; pI:C, poly(I) poly(C); TBK1, TANK binding kinase 1; GST, glutathione S-transferase; HEK cells, human embryonic kidney cells; TRIF, TIR-domain containing adapter inducing IFNβ. TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 recognize viral nucleic acids and induce type I IFNs. TLR7 and TLR8 are similar in sequence and together with TLR9 form an evolutionarily related subgroup within the TLR superfamily (2Chuang T.H. Ulevitch R.J. Eur. Cytokine Netw. 2000; 11: 372-378PubMed Google Scholar, 3Du X. 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In unstimulated cells IRFs reside in the cytoplasm. The activation of these factors requires phosphorylation on the C terminus, leading to dimerization, nuclear translocation, and binding to promoters containing IRF binding elements (26Barnes B. Lubyova B. Pitha P.M. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2002; 22: 59-71Crossref PubMed Scopus (273) Google Scholar, 27Yoneyama M. Suhara W. Fujita T. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2002; 22: 73-76Crossref PubMed Scopus (135) Google Scholar, 28Reich N.C. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2002; 22: 103-109Crossref PubMed Scopus (43) Google Scholar). The IKK-related kinases, IκB kinase ϵ (IKKϵ (also called IKKi) (29Peters R.T. Liao S.M. Maniatis T. Mol. Cell. 2000; 5: 513-522Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (281) Google Scholar, 30Shimada T. Kawai T. Takeda K. Matsumoto M. Inoue J. Tatsumi Y. Kanamaru A. Akira S. Int. 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J. Exp. Med. 2001; 194: 863-869Crossref PubMed Scopus (1683) Google Scholar). The molecular mechanisms responsible for the induction of IFNs by TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 signaling are unclear at present. Because pDCs express high constitutive levels of IRF5 as well as IRF7, we were prompted to investigate the functional importance of these two IRFs in the regulation of type I IFNs by these TLRs. We focused the present study on the TLR7 and TLR8 signaling pathway. We demonstrate that TLR7 and TLR8 activate both IRF5 and IRF7 and do not appear to activate IRF3. We also show using reconstitution experiments and siRNA silencing approaches that IRF5 is a critical mediator of TLR7 signaling. Both IRF5 and IRF7 are regulated in a MyD88-, IRAK1-, and TRAF6-dependent manner, in contrast to IRF3, which is regulated via TRIF in TLR3 or TLR4 signaling. Reagents—pFLAG-CMV1-TLR3 was cloned by PCR from a full-length cDNA clone. pFLAG-CMV1-TLR7 was cloned by PCR from THP-1 genomic DNA. The plasmid pcDNA3.1-TLR8 was a gift from the Eisai Research Institute (Andover, MA). Dominant negative IRF5 (DN IRF5) is a DNA binding domain deletion mutant of wild type IRF5 (variant 3, GenBank™ accession number AY504946) and is missing the first N-terminal 137 amino acids. The pcDNA3-MyD88-TIR-AU1 dominant negative (DN) plasmid was generated as described (47Muzio M. Ni J. Feng P. Dixit V.M. Science. 1997; 278: 1612-1615Crossref PubMed Scopus (984) Google Scholar). The Gal4 upstream activation sequence (UAS(GAL))-driven luciferase reporter gene and Gal4-IRF3 were from T. Fujita (Tokyo, Japan (48Yoneyama M. Suhara W. Fukuhara Y. Fukuda M. Nishida E. Fujita T. EMBO J. 1998; 17: 1087-1095Crossref PubMed Scopus (690) Google Scholar)). Gal4-IRF5 (19Barnes B.J. Moore P.A. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 23382-23390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar), Gal4-IRF7 (49Au W.C. Moore P.A. LaFleur D.W. Tombal B. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 29210-29217Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (240) Google Scholar), FLAG-IRF5 (19Barnes B.J. Moore P.A. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 23382-23390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar), IRF7-GFP, and IRF5-GFP (19Barnes B.J. Moore P.A. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 23382-23390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar) were described previously. The IFNA1 and IFNB-secreted alkaline phosphatase reporter plasmids were as described (50Dent C.L. Gewert D.R. Eur. J. Biochem. 1996; 236: 895-903Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar). TRAF2 and TRAF6 mutant constructs were from H. Wesche (Tularik, CA) (51Cao Z. Xiong J. Takeuchi M. Kurama T. Goeddel D.V. Nature. 1996; 383: 443-446Crossref PubMed Scopus (1122) Google Scholar). pI:C was from Amersham Biosciences. Resiquimod (R-848) was from GLSynthesis Inc. (Worcester, MA). SeV (Cantrell strain) and NDV (VR-699) were purchased from American Type Culture Collection (ATCC, Manassas, VA). VSV was from Phil Marcus (Connecticut, CT). The IRAK1-deficient I1A-HEK293 cells were form X. Li (Cleveland, OH) (52Li X. Commane M. Burns C. Vithalani K. Cao Z. Stark G.R. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1999; 19: 4643-4652Crossref PubMed Scopus (187) Google Scholar). Primary human fibroblasts and bovine kidney cells (Madin-Darby bovine kidney) were from Gary Hayward (Baltimore, MD). Reporter Gene Assays—HEK293 cells or I1A-HEK293 cells (0.2 × 105 cells per well of a 96-well plate) were transfected with 10 ng of pFLAG-CMV1-TLR7, pcDNA3.1-TLR8, pFLAG-CMV1-TLR3, or empty vector control and co-transfected with 40 ng of Gal4-IRF5 (variant 3), Gal4-IRF7, or Gal4-DBD plus 40 ng of the UAS(GAL)-luciferase reporter gene. Cells were additionally co-transfected with dominant negative constructs for MyD88 (MyD88 TIR), TBK1 (TBK1 K38A), IKKϵ (IKKϵ K38A), TRAF2 (DN TRAF2), or TRAF6 (DN TRAF6) as indicated. In all cases 40 ng per well of the thymidine kinase driven Renilla luciferase reporter gene (Promega, Madison, WI) was co-transfected to normalize for transfection efficiency. After 24 or 36 h of transfection, cells were stimulated for 8 or 15 h as indicated. Post-stimulation, cell lysates were prepared, and reporter gene activity was measured using the dual luciferase assay system (Promega). 5 × 105 2fTGH cells were plated in six-well plates and transfected for 20 h with 1 μg of IFNA1 or IFNB-secreted alkaline phosphatase reporter, 500 ng of pFLAG-CMV1-TLR7, and/or 1 μg FLAG-IRF5 and/or 500 ng DN IRF5 using Superfect transfection reagent (Qiagen, Santa Clarita, CA). Additionally, cells were transfected with 50 ng of the β-galactosidase expression plasmid to allow for the normalization of the data. 20 h after transfection cells were divided and seeded into 24-well plates and stimulated with 10 μm R-848 or infected with NDV (240 hemagglutination units; 1 hemagglutinin unit is defined as the amount of virus needed to agglutinate an equal volume of standardized red blood cell suspension) or VSV (multiplicity of infection 2) for an additional 16 h. The secreted alkaline phosphatase activity was determined as described (50Dent C.L. Gewert D.R. Eur. J. Biochem. 1996; 236: 895-903Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar). All data are expressed as the mean relative stimulation ± S.D. All of the experiments described were performed a minimum of three occasions and gave similar results. Confocal Microscopy—RAW 264.7 cells (1 × 106) were transiently transfected with 2 μg of IRF5-GFP or IRF7-GFP using GeneJuice (Novagen, Madison, WI) to analyze the nuclear translocation of IRF5 or IRF7 visually. After 48 h of transfection, cells were stimulated for an additional 24 h with 15 μm R-848 or 100 μg/ml pI:C or phosphate-buffered saline. The analysis of nuclear translocation was performed using a Leica TCS SP2 AOBS confocal microscope. Type I IFN Bioassay—HEK293T, HEK293T/IRF5, 2fTGH, and 2fTGH/IRF5 cells (0.75 × 104 cells per well of a 96-well plate) were transiently transfected with 50 ng of pFLAG-CMV1-TLR7. 24 h later cells were stimulated with 10 μm R-848 or left untreated. THP-1 cells (1 × 106) were stimulated with 10 μm R-848 or infected with NDV (240 hemagglutination units) or VSV (multiplicity of infection 2) or left untreated. The levels of biologically active type I IFNs were determined in the cell culture supernatant after 16 h of stimulation by the viral cytopathic effect assay (53Yeh T.J. McBride P.T. Overall Jr., J.C. Green J.A. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1982; 16: 413-415Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Vesicular stomatitis virus was used as the challenging virus, and the cytopathic effect was determined in human fibroblasts and/or Madin-Darby bovine kidney cells. RNA Interference—The coding region of IRF5 was targeted with the following IRF5 siRNA: 5′-ATACACCGAAGGCGTGGAT-3′ (Dharmacon Inc., Lafayette, CO). The conditions for IRF5 gene silencing were determined by transfecting 2fTGH/FLAG-IRF5 cells with 0, 2, 5, 7, or 10 nm IRF5 siRNA, a scrambled siRNA control, or a LacZ siRNA control (sequence 5′-AACGTACGCGGAATACTTCGA-3′) using Mirus TransIT® TKO reagent (Mirus, Madison, WI). The efficiency of IRF5 silencing was analyzed after 24 h of transfection by reverse transcription-PCR and/or immunoblot. Amaxa Electroporation of Suspension Cells—THP-1 cells were electroporated using the Amaxa kit (Gaithersburg, MD) according to manufacturer's specifications. Briefly, THP-1 cells (1 × 106) were harvested and resuspended in 100 μl of Nucleofector solution. After the addition of IRF5 siRNA (7 nm) or LacZ siRNA (10 nm), cells were electroporated using Amaxa program U-01 or V-01. 8 h after transfection, cells were exposed to 10 μm R-848 or left untreated. After an additional 16 h cells were subjected to reverse transcription-PCR analysis. Reverse Transcription-PCR Analysis—RNA was isolated from 1 × 106 THP-1 cells using an RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen, Santa Clarita, CA). One microgram of DNase-treated total RNA was reverse-transcribed to cDNA with oligo(dT) primers in a 20-μl reaction. Human IFNα (consensus primers designed to recognize most human IFNα subtypes), IFNβ, IRF5, and β-actin cDNA were amplified by PCR using primers and PCR conditions as previously described (42Izaguirre A. Barnes B.J. Amrute S. Yeow W.S. Megjugorac N. Dai J. Feng D. Chung E. Pitha P.M. Fitzgerald-Bocarsly P. J. Leukocyte Biol. 2003; 74: 1125-1138Crossref PubMed Scopus (288) Google Scholar, 54Yeow W.S. Au W.C. Juang Y.T. Fields C.D. Dent C.L. Gewert D.R. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2000; 275: 6313-6320Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar). Recombinant Proteins—GST fusion proteins and baculovirus proteins were prepared as described (55Lee F.S. Peters R.T. Dang L.C. Maniatis T. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 9319-9324Crossref PubMed Scopus (356) Google Scholar). Kinase Assays—In vitro kinase assays were performed as described (55Lee F.S. Peters R.T. Dang L.C. Maniatis T. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 9319-9324Crossref PubMed Scopus (356) Google Scholar) using 10 ng of recombinant IKKβ or TBK1 and 1 μg of GST-IRF3, IRF5, IκBα wild type, and IκBα S32/36A. TLR7 and TLR8 Activate IRF5 and IRF7 but Not IRF3— Double-stranded RNA and LPS induce type I IFN gene expression via the adapter molecule TRIF and the transcriptional regulator IRF3 (37Yamamoto M. Sato S. Mori K. Hoshino K. Takeuchi O. Takeda K. Akira S. J. Immunol. 2002; 169: 6668-6672Crossref PubMed Scopus (1022) Google Scholar, 38Oshiumi H. Matsumoto M. Funami K. Akazawa T. Seya T. Nat. Immunol. 2003; 4: 161-167Crossref PubMed Scopus (1011) Google Scholar, 39Yamamoto M. Sato S. Hemmi H. Hoshino K. Kaisho T. Sanjo H. Takeuchi O. Sugiyama M. Okabe M. Takeda K. Akira S. Science. 2003; 301: 640-643Crossref PubMed Scopus (2510) Google Scholar). The molecular mechanisms responsible for the induction of type I IFNs in TLR7 or TLR8 signaling is unclear at present. We were interested in elucidating the role of the transcription factors IRF3, IRF5, and IRF7 in signaling by TLR7 and TLR8. To this end we monitor the activation of these factors individually. We employed an in vivo reporter assay that utilizes hybrid proteins consisting of the yeast Gal4 DNA binding domain fused either to IRF3, IRF5, or IRF7, lacking its own DNA binding domain (19Barnes B.J. Moore P.A. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 23382-23390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar, 49Au W.C. Moore P.A. LaFleur D.W. Tombal B. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 29210-29217Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (240) Google Scholar, 56Wathelet M.G. Lin C.H. Parekh B.S. Ronco L.V. Howley P.M. Maniatis T. Mol. Cell. 1998; 1: 507-518Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (654) Google Scholar). In this assay the UAS(GAL)-driven luciferase reporter gene expression requires activation of the corresponding IRF fusion protein (56Wathelet M.G. Lin C.H. Parekh B.S. Ronco L.V. Howley P.M. Maniatis T. Mol. Cell. 1998; 1: 507-518Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (654) Google Scholar). The basal level of all three IRF fusion proteins was similar in untreated cells. TLR7- or TLR8-expressing HEK293 cells transfected with Gal4-IRF3, Gal4-IRF5, or Gal4-IRF7 plasmids were stimulated with R-848. TLR7 or -8 signaling activated IRF5 and IRF7 but not IRF3 (Fig. 1A, upper panel). Stimulation of TLR3-expressing HEK293 with pI:C did not activate IRF5 (Fig. 1A, bottom left panel), although IRF3 and IRF7 were induced in a robust manner. Furthermore, infection of HEK293 cells with SeV, a well characterized activator of IRF3 and IRF7, also failed to activate IRF5 (Fig. 1A, bottom right panel), in agreement with published reports (19Barnes B.J. Moore P.A. Pitha P.M. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 23382-23390Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (311) Google Scholar). Thus, TLR7 and TLR8 activate IRF5 and IRF7 and do not appear to activate IRF3. Neither Sendai virus nor TLR3 signaling activated IRF5. As a second independent methodology, we examined the nuclear translocation of these three IRFs in RAW264.7 macrophage-like cells transfected with IRFGFP fusion constructs. The IRF5-GFP or IRF7-GFP fusion proteins were expressed in the cytoplasm of unstimulated cells (Fig. 1, B and C). Stimulation of these cells with R-848 resulted in the nuclear translocation of both IRF5-GFP and IRF7-GFP (Fig. 1, B and C, middle panels) but did not induce nuclear translocation of IRF3-GFP (data not shown). In agreement with the Gal4-IRF5 assay, IRF5-GFP did not translocate to the nucleus in cells stimulated with pI:C (Fig. 1B, lower panel). IRF7-GFP did, however, translocate in response to pI:C, in agreement with previous reports (Fig. 1C, lower panel). These nuclear translocation data are representative of several fields analyzed. We also looked at IRF3 phosphorylation using phospho-specific IRF3 antibodies in R-848- and LPS-stimulated cells. There was no detectable phosphorylation of IRF3 with R-848 seen (data not shown), in contrast to LPS, which did induce IRF3 phosphorylation. Taken together, these observations establish that unlike TLR3, TLR7 and TLR8 can activate IRF5 but not IRF3. Consistent with these observations, R-848 did not induce IRF3-DNA binding activity to an ISG-15 probe (which binds activated IRF3) under conditions where NF-κB was activated (data not shown), further supporting the idea that IRF3 is not a mediator of the TLR7 signaling pathway. While this manuscript was in preparation, two independent reports from the Akira and Taniguchi laboratories (57Kawai T. Sato S. Ishii K.J. Coban C. Hemmi H. Yamamoto M. Terai K. Matsuda M. Inoue J. Uematsu S. Takeuchi O. Akira S. Nat. Immunol. 2004; 5: 1061-1068Crossref PubMed Scopus (831) Google Scholar, 58Honda K. Yanai H. Mizutani T. Negishi H. Shimada N. Suzuki N. Ohba Y. Takaoka A. Yeh W.C. Taniguchi T. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. 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