Article16 February 2006free access Two E3 ubiquitin ligases, SCF-Skp2 and DDB1-Cul4, target human Cdt1 for proteolysis Hideo Nishitani Corresponding Author Hideo Nishitani Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Nozomi Sugimoto Nozomi Sugimoto Virology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo, Japan Search for more papers by this author Vassilis Roukos Vassilis Roukos Laboratory of General Biology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Patras, Greece Search for more papers by this author Yohsuke Nakanishi Yohsuke Nakanishi Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Masafumi Saijo Masafumi Saijo Graduate School of FrontierBioscience, Osaka University, Japan Search for more papers by this author Chikashi Obuse Chikashi Obuse Department of Gene Mechanisms, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan Search for more papers by this author Toshiki Tsurimoto Toshiki Tsurimoto Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Keiichi I Nakayama Keiichi I Nakayama Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Keiko Nakayama Keiko Nakayama Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Masatoshi Fujita Masatoshi Fujita Virology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo, Japan Search for more papers by this author Zoi Lygerou Zoi Lygerou Laboratory of General Biology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Patras, Greece Search for more papers by this author Takeharu Nishimoto Takeharu Nishimoto Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Hideo Nishitani Corresponding Author Hideo Nishitani Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Nozomi Sugimoto Nozomi Sugimoto Virology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo, Japan Search for more papers by this author Vassilis Roukos Vassilis Roukos Laboratory of General Biology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Patras, Greece Search for more papers by this author Yohsuke Nakanishi Yohsuke Nakanishi Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Masafumi Saijo Masafumi Saijo Graduate School of FrontierBioscience, Osaka University, Japan Search for more papers by this author Chikashi Obuse Chikashi Obuse Department of Gene Mechanisms, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan Search for more papers by this author Toshiki Tsurimoto Toshiki Tsurimoto Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Keiichi I Nakayama Keiichi I Nakayama Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Keiko Nakayama Keiko Nakayama Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Masatoshi Fujita Masatoshi Fujita Virology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo, Japan Search for more papers by this author Zoi Lygerou Zoi Lygerou Laboratory of General Biology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Patras, Greece Search for more papers by this author Takeharu Nishimoto Takeharu Nishimoto Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan Search for more papers by this author Author Information Hideo Nishitani 1, Nozomi Sugimoto2, Vassilis Roukos3, Yohsuke Nakanishi1, Masafumi Saijo4, Chikashi Obuse5, Toshiki Tsurimoto6, Keiichi I Nakayama7, Keiko Nakayama7, Masatoshi Fujita2, Zoi Lygerou3 and Takeharu Nishimoto1 1Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 2Virology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo, Japan 3Laboratory of General Biology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Rio, Patras, Greece 4Graduate School of FrontierBioscience, Osaka University, Japan 5Department of Gene Mechanisms, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan 6Department of Biology, School of Sciences, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 7Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, Japan *Corresponding author. Department of Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Maidashi 3-1-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan. Tel.: +81 92 642 6177; Fax: +81 92 642 6183; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2006)25:1126-1136https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7601002 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Replication licensing is carefully regulated to restrict replication to once in a cell cycle. In higher eukaryotes, regulation of the licensing factor Cdt1 by proteolysis and Geminin is essential to prevent re-replication. We show here that the N-terminal 100 amino acids of human Cdt1 are recognized for proteolysis by two distinct E3 ubiquitin ligases during S–G2 phases. Six highly conserved amino acids within the 10 first amino acids of Cdt1 are essential for DDB1-Cul4-mediated proteolysis. This region is also involved in proteolysis following DNA damage. The second E3 is SCF-Skp2, which recognizes the Cy-motif-mediated Cyclin E/A-cyclin-dependent kinase-phosphorylated region. Consistently, in HeLa cells cosilenced of Skp2 and Cul4, Cdt1 remained stable in S–G2 phases. The Cul4-containing E3 is active during ongoing replication, while SCF-Skp2 operates both in S and G2 phases. PCNA binds to Cdt1 through the six conserved N-terminal amino acids. PCNA is essential for Cul4- but not Skp2-directed degradation during DNA replication and following ultraviolet-irradiation. Our data unravel multiple distinct pathways regulating Cdt1 to block re-replication. Introduction Initiation of cell cycle events is controlled by the sequential activation and inactivation of Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) (Nurse, 1994; Sherr, 1994). S-Cyclin/CDKs are required to initiate DNA replication, while M-Cyclin/CDKs are activated following completion of DNA replication to initiate mitosis. To ensure accurate transmission of the genetic information, it is essential that during each cell cycle no DNA segment is left unreplicated nor does it re-replicate before chromosome segregation occurs. The DNA replication licensing system regulates initiation of DNA replication and inhibition of re-replication by controlling the assembly of the pre-replicative complex (pre-RC) on origins of replication (Blow and Hodgson, 2002; Nishitani and Lygerou, 2004). The pre-RC is formed at the end of mitosis and in G1 phase in a stepwise process: association of Cdc6 and Cdt1 onto the origin recognition complex-bound origins leads to recruitment and loading of the hexameric MCM2–7 complex, which licenses origins for replication (Bell and Dutta, 2002; Blow and Dutta, 2005). Licensing is established in mammalian cells several hours before CDKs and the Dbf4-dependent kinase are activated to initiate replication. The MCM2–7 complex most likely acts as a replicative helicase, leaving the origin, and traveling ahead of the replication machinery (Aparicio et al, 1997; Ishimi, 1997; Labib and Diffley, 2001). Following firing, origins convert to the post-replicative state, and are not licensed again until the completion of cell division. CDKs, while necessary for initiation, inhibit pre-RC formation during S to G2/M by inactivating licensing factors through phosphorylation or direct association (Nguyen et al, 2001; Wuarin et al, 2002). For example, phosphorylation of licensing factors has been shown to lead to their degradation or nuclear exclusion (Drury et al, 1997; Jallepalli et al, 1997; Labib et al, 1999). In higher eukaryotes, Geminin, a specific inhibitor of Cdt1, accumulates from S phase. It binds to Cdt1 and inhibits MCM loading (McGarry and Kirschner, 1998; Wohlschlegel et al, 2000; Tada et al, 2001). Geminin and Cyclin B have a destruction box, and are degraded by the anaphase-promoting complex around anaphase of mitosis. Thus, origin licensing is restricted to the end of mitosis and G1 phase, when CDK activity is low and Geminin is absent (Diffley, 2004). Control of the MCM2–7 loading factors, Cdc6 and Cdt1, is critical to prevent re-replication. High expression of Cdc18, the Schizosaccharomyces pombe Cdc6 homolog, induces massive over-replication in S. pombe, which is promoted by coexpression of Cdt1 (Nishitani and Nurse, 1995; Nishitani et al, 2000). In metazoans, regulation of Cdt1 is believed to be the major means through which re-replication is inhibited. High expression of Cdt1 in mammalian cells and Drosophila or addition of Cdt1 protein to G2 nuclei in Xenopus egg extracts induces re-replication (Vaziri et al, 2003; Thomer et al, 2004; Arias and Walter, 2005; Li and Blow, 2005; Maiorano et al, 2005; Yoshida et al, 2005). It was also shown that silencing of Geminin in human cells leads to re-replication (Melixetian et al, 2004; Zhu et al, 2004). Proteolytic control ensures that human Cdt1 is present only from late mitosis and in G1 phase. Its degradation is promoted by ubiquitination in S phase independently of Geminin binding (Wohlschlegel et al, 2000; Nishitani et al, 2001, 2004; Xouri et al, 2004; Arias and Walter, 2005). Although SCF-Skp2 has been implicated in Cdt1 degradation, evidence against an involvement of SCF-Skp2 has also been reported. Cdt1 binds to and is phosphorylated by Cyclin E/CDK2 and Cyclin A/CDK2, which marks it for recognition by an Skp2-containing E3 ubiquitin ligase (Li et al, 2003; Liu et al, 2004; Nishitani et al, 2004; Sugimoto et al, 2004). However, a recent report showed that a mutant in the Cy-motif of Cdt1, which is refractory to Cyclin/CDK phosphorylation and Skp2 binding, is still degraded in S phase (Takeda et al, 2005). It was also noticed that Cdt1 does not accumulate in Skp2−/− mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) (Nakayama et al, 2004). On the other hand, Cdt1 is degraded by a Cul4 complex in Caenorhabditis elegans (Zhong et al, 2003) and proteolytic control of Cdt1 is crucial in this organism to block re-replication, since inactivation of Cul4 brings about massive re-replication. In addition, DNA damage such as ultraviolet (UV) radiation induces Cdt1 degradation through Cul4-mediated proteolysis in mammalian cells (Higa et al, 2003; Hu et al, 2004). However, Skp2-dependent Cdt1 degradation following UV-irradiation has also been reported (Kondo et al, 2004). To clarify the proteolytic control of Cdt1 during the cell cycle and following DNA damage in human cells, we performed a detailed domain analysis of human Cdt1. We found that Cdt1 is targeted for ubiquitination by two distinct E3 ubiquitin ligases, which are triggered to target Cdt1 through different pathways and recognize different parts of the N-terminal region of Cdt1. Results Cdt1 is degraded in the absence of Skp2 both after UV-irradiation and in S–G2 phase Cdt1 is degraded promptly after the onset of S phase and upon DNA damage such as UV-irradiation (Wohlschlegel et al, 2000; Nishitani et al, 2001; Higa et al, 2003). To search for proteins involved in Cdt1 degradation, we analyzed proteins copurifying with Cdt1 from HeLa cells treated with the proteasome inhibitor MG132, and recovered Cyclin A and Skp2 (data not shown). We therefore wished to examine whether Skp2 is required for correct cell cycle proteolysis of Cdt1. In order to assess the cell cycle expression profile of Cdt1 in asynchronous populations, we employed double Immunofluorescence (IF) analysis for Cdt1 and Cyclin A. Our assay is based on the observation that in a normal cell cycle, Cdt1 is present exclusively in G1 cells, while Cyclin A is present from S phase to early M phase (Pines and Hunter, 1990; Nishitani et al, 2001). Thus, Cdt1-positive cells are not stained with Cyclin A and vice versa (Figure 1A, upper panel). Perturbations in cell cycle regulation of Cdt1 can therefore be directly assessed at the single-cell level in asynchronous populations by the appearance of Cdt1-Cyclin A double-positive cells. Following UV-irradiation, Cdt1 is undetectable in both Cyclin A-positive and -negative cells (Figure 1A, lower panel; UV). This sensitive assay allows quantitative assessment of the cell cycle degradation of Cdt1 and avoids the use of drugs for synchronization, which could themselves affect Cdt1 proteolysis. Figure 1.Cdt1 degradation in S–G2 phases and after UV-irradiation occurs in the absence of Skp2. (A) Double immunofluorescence analysis of HeLa cells with anti-Cyclin A and anti-Cdt1 antibodies. HeLa cells growing asynchronously (upper panel), or treated with UV (20 J/m2, lower panel; UV) and then returned to culture for 1 h, were fixed and stained with the antibodies indicated. (B) Cdt1 is degraded in the absence of Skp2 in HeLa cells. Cells were transfected with siRNA for Skp2 or luciferase (Luc). At 48 h following transfection, half of the treated cells were irradiated with UV (20 J/m2). After 1 h, cells were fixed for immunofluorescence as above or extracts prepared for immunoblotting with the indicated antibodies. The band marked with an asterisk on the p27 blot is a crossreacting band, which serves as a loading control. (C) Cdt1 degradation in Skp2−/− MEFs. (a) Cell extracts were prepared from Skp2+/+ and −/− MEFs and blotted with anti-Cdt1 and anti-p27 antibodies. RCC1 served as a loading control. (b) Asynchronous cultures of Skp2 +/+ and −/− MEFs were UV-irradiated as indicated, collected at the indicated times (in h), and Cdt1 and p27 protein levels analyzed. Total protein (CBB) served as a loading control. Download figure Download PowerPoint To investigate if Cdt1 is proteolysed in the absence of Skp2, HeLa cells were transfected with siRNA specific for Skp2 (Figure 1B). Western blotting (WB) for Skp2 and p27, a known target of Skp2, demonstrated the efficiency of the RNAi treatment. IF analysis showed that Skp2 protein was undetectable in a large proportion of siSkp2-treated cells (Supplementary Figure S1A). Cell cycle progression was not blocked due to accumulation of p27 in siSkp2-treated cells, as the percentage of BrdU-positive cells was similar in siSkp2 and control-treated cells (Supplementary Figure S1A). Total Cdt1 protein levels increased three-fold in Skp2-depleted cells in comparison to control cells (Figure 1Ba), as reported previously (Li et al, 2003). However in Skp2-silenced cells, Cdt1 was still absent in Cyclin A-positive cells (Figure 1Bb, upper panel) and BrdU-positive cells (Supplementary Figure S1B), indicating that cell cycle-specific proteolysis of Cdt1 was maintained. In addition, degradation of Cdt1 following DNA damage was unaffected by Skp2 depletion (Figure 1Bb, lower panel). This argues against Skp2 being essential for Cdt1 proteolysis during S phase and after UV-irradiation. We also observed that Cdt1 was degraded in Skp2−/− MEFs similar to wild-type cells (Figure 1C). When whole-cell extracts were immunoblotted, p27 protein levels were highly increased in Skp2−/− MEF, but the Cdt1 protein level remained similar to that in Skp2+/+ MEF (Figure 1Ca). Consistently, Cdt1 was detected only in a subpopulation of both MEF cultures by IF (data not shown). After UV-irradiation, Cdt1 was degraded in both cultures with similar kinetics (Figure 1Cb). In addition to SCF-Skp2, the DDB1-Cul4 pathway has been implicated in Cdt1 degradation (Higa et al, 2003; Zhong et al, 2003; Hu et al, 2004). In order to investigate the requirement for DDB1 for Cdt1 proteolysis, siRNA for DDB1 was used. While UV-induced Cdt1 degradation was inhibited, as reported previously (Hu et al, 2004), Cdt1 was still correctly degraded in S–G2 cells (Supplementary Figure S2). These data indicate that neither Skp2 nor DDB1 are independently required for correct cell cycle-specific proteolysis of Cdt1. Six conserved amino acids at the Cdt1 N-terminus are essential for degradation after UV, while this motif and the Cy-containing region are separately involved in S–G2 degradation A fragment containing the N-terminal 1–189 amino acids of Cdt1 is degraded essentially the same as endogenous Cdt1 both in S–G2 phases (Nishitani et al, 2004) and after UV-irradiation (Supplementary Figure S3). To identify regions within the amino-terminus of Cdt1, which mediate proteolysis, a series of deletion constructs fused with 9myc-3NLS were made (Figure 2A) and cell lines stably expressing each construct to comparable levels were isolated (Figure 2B). In the control strain expressing 9myc-3NLS alone, the protein is stable in all cell cycle phases and after UV-irradiation (Supplementary Figure S4A). By assaying a series of constructs with progressively shorter Cdt1 N-terminal fragments (Figure 2C and Supplementary Figure S4), the N-terminal 28 amino acids were identified as sufficient to confer both UV-induced and S–G2-specific degradation. When the first 10 or 20 amino acids were deleted from the (1–101) N-terminal region of Cdt1 (construct (11–101) and (21–101)9myc-3NLS)), the protein became stable after UV-irradiation, while the S–G2 degradation was not affected (Figure 2D and Supplementary Figure S4D). When the N-terminus was further removed, the (38–101) protein became stable in S–G2 phases, as well as after UV-irradiation (Figure 2E). The results are summarized in Figure 2A (right side). These data show that the first 10 amino acids of Cdt1 are essential for degradation after UV-irradiation. For S–G2 degradation, two alternative explanations were possible: since both the 1–28 and 21–101 regions exhibited correct cell cycle proteolysis, which was lost in the 38–101 construct, either a region between amino acids 21–28 of Cdt1 was essential and sufficient to confer cell cycle-specific proteolysis, or redundant elements were present within the N-terminus. In order to discriminate between the two possibilities, a deletion construct of 1–51 lacking amino acids 22–31 was constructed. This protein was degraded correctly both after UV-irradiation and in S–G2 phase (Figure 2F). Taken together, the mutation analysis leads to the hypothesis that two regions, one within the first 20 amino acids of Cdt1 and a second one in the 21–101 region, are separately involved in S–G2 proteolysis. Figure 2.N-terminal domain analysis of Cdt1. (A) N-terminal constructs fused to 9myc3NLS. The results of the degradation assay for each construct during S–G2 phases and after UV are summarized on the right (D, degraded or S, stable). At the bottom, predicted regions required for proteolysis are shown as black bars. (B) Western blot analysis of stable cell lines, using an anti-myc antibody. Lane 1: 9myc3NLS only; lane 2: (1–151); lane 3: (1–101); lane 4: (1–51); lane 5: (1–34); lane 6: (1–28); lane 7: (11–101); lane 8: (21–101); lane 9: (38–101); and lane 10: (1–51) deleted of (22–31). (C) Asynchronously growing stable (1–28)9mycNLS cells were stained with anti-Cyclin A and anti-myc antibodies in the absence of UV treatment (upper panel) or 1 h after UV treatment (lower panel; UV). (D–F) Asynchronous populations of each cell line indicated were examined as in (C). Download figure Download PowerPoint In order to pinpoint the amino acids required for cell cycle proteolysis, we scanned the amino-terminus of Cdt1 for known motifs and phylogenetically conserved amino acids. Upon comparison of the N-terminal regions of human, mouse and Xenopus Cdt1 proteins, six conserved amino acids were detected within the first 10 amino acids of Cdt1 (Figure 3, referred to hereafter as the QXRVTDF-motif). To investigate if these amino acids are important, the six amino acids were changed to alanines in the (1–101) construct, to generate construct A6(1–101) 9myc-3NLS. The Cy-motif, present in amino acids 68RRL70 of Cdt1, previously shown to be required for CDK/Cyclin association and phosphorylation (Liu et al, 2004; Sugimoto et al, 2004) could be involved in cell cycle proteolysis, and was therefore mutated to alanines to generate construct Cy(1–101). Stable cell lines expressing Cy(1–101), A6(1–101) and the double mutant A6Cy(1–101) to comparable levels were isolated (Figure 3B and C). The Cy(1–101) mutant was correctly proteolysed both in S–G2 and following UV damage (Figure 3D). The A6(1–101) remained stable after UV-irradiation, demonstrating that the six conserved amino acids are essential for degradation after DNA damage, while it was still degraded in S–G2 phase (Figure 3E). Strikingly, the double mutant A6Cy(1–101) became stable both in S–G2 and after UV-irradiation (Figure 3F). Consistently, when the A6 mutation was introduced into the (1–28)9myc-3NLS construct, which was degraded in both cases (Figure 2C), the A6(1–28) 9myc-3NLS became stable in both situations (Supplementary Figure S4E). Figure 3.Two domains in the N-terminus are involved in degradation. (A) Alignment of N-terminal amino acids of human, mouse and Xenopus Cdt1. The six conserved amino acids were mutated to alanine to generate mutant A6. (B) (1–101) constructs with the indicated mutations that were fused with 9mycNLS. Their stability (D, degraded or S, stable) in S–G2 phases (S–G2) or after UV irradiation (UV) is summarized on the right. (C) Stable cell lines. Whole-cell extracts prepared from each cell line were blotted with anti-myc antibody (lane1: HeLa cell; lane 2: (1–101); lane 3: Cy(1–101); lane 4: A6(1–101); lane 5: A6Cy(1–101). (D–F) Each stable cell line indicated was stained with anti-Cyclin A and anti-myc antibodies in the absence of UV treatment (upper panel) or after UV irradiation (lower panel, UV) as indicated. Download figure Download PowerPoint We conclude that six phylogenetically conserved amino acids within the first 10 amino acids of Cdt1 mediate both the UV-induced and S–G2 degradation, while the Cy-dependent region is specific for S–G2 degradation. Two E3 ligases are involved in Cdt1 degradation Our mutational analysis indicated that two redundant pathways could confer S–G2-specific proteolysis of Cdt1, one requiring the first 10 amino acids of Cdt1 and a second Cy-motif dependant. In order to determine which E3 ligase(s) was responsible for each pathway, we combined cell lines expressing mutated forms of Cdt1 with inactivation of putative E3 ligases. SCF-Skp2 and DDB1-Cul4, which we showed above not to be independently required for Cdt1 cell cycle proteolysis, were good candidates for mediating the two pathways. Initial experiments using Cdt1 N-terminal fragments showed that siRNA-mediated silencing of Skp2 led to stabilization of the A6(1–101) mutant in S–G2 cells (Supplementary Figure S5A), while silencing of Cul4A and B led to stabilization of the (1–34)9myc-3NLS fragment, which lacks the Cy-motif, both following DNA damage and in S–G2 (Supplementary Figure S5B). These experiments led to the hypothesis that Skp2 may mediate the Cy-motif-dependent pathway, while Cul4A/B may mediate the QXRVTDF-motif-dependent pathway. In order to further investigate this hypothesis, we introduced the A6 and Cy mutations independently in the context of the full-length Cdt1. Since the Cy mutant had a defect in nuclear import (data not shown), three copies of the SV40 NLS together with a myc tag was fused to the C-terminus of all constructs, as illustrated in Figure 4A. Stable cell lines were isolated, which express each of these mutants to levels similar to endogenous Cdt1 (Figure 4B). WT-Cdt1-3NLSmyc was degraded correctly both after UV-irradiation and in S–G2, indicating that addition of 3NLSmyc at the C-terminus did not affect Cdt1 proteolysis (Supplementary Figure S5C). The full-length A6-Cdt1-3NLSmyc (A6-Cdt1) was stable after UV-irradiation (data not shown), but was degraded in S–G2 (Figure 4C; siLuc). As shown in Figure 4C, silencing of Skp2, but not of Cul4, by RNAi led to stabilization of A6-Cdt1 in S–G2, as marked by the appearance of Cdt1/Cyclin A double-positive cells. Consistently, A6-Cdt1 levels increased dramatically in Skp2-silenced cells on Western blot (Figure 4C). When the SCF-component Cul1 was silenced, A6-Cdt1, but not Cy-Cdt1, became stable in most Cyclin A-positive cells (Supplementary Figure S6). This shows that SCF-Skp2 is required for the degradation of A6-Cdt1 and is therefore likely to be the mediator of the Cy-dependent pathway leading to S–G2 degradation of Cdt1. Figure 4.Two regions are recognized by two E3 ubiquitin ligases. (A) Full-size Cdt1 constructs fused with 3NLSmyc; full WT-Cdt1- (WT), A6-Cdt1- (A6) and Cy-Cdt1-3NLSmyc (Cy). (B) Stable lines, lane1: HeLa; lane 2: WT; lane 3: A6; and lane 4: Cy. Whole-cell extracts were prepared from each stable cell line and immunoblotted with anti-Cdt1 antibodies. (C) Stabilization of full A6-Cdt1-3NLSmyc after Skp2 silencing. Cells were transfected with the indicated siRNA, and costained with anti-Cyclin A and anti-myc antibodies (left) or extracts were prepared to blot with the indicated antibodies (right). (D) Stabilization of full Cy-Cdt1-3NLSmyc after Cul4 (A+B) silencing. Cells were treated as in (C). (E, F). Stabilization of full Cy-Cdt1-3NLSmyc (Cy-Cdt1) after silencing of DDB1 or Cul4. Cells were transfected with the indicated siRNAs, and treated for immunofluorescence or Western blotting (WB) with the antibodies for indicated proteins (F). Cells stained (+) or not stained (−) for Cy-Cdt1 and Cyclin A were counted, and frequency is shown (%) (E). In all Western blots, the arrowheads indicate endogenous Cdt1, while arrows indicate the full-sized Cdt1 constructs fused with 3NLSmyc. Download figure Download PowerPoint In order to assess the involvement of DDB1-Cul4 in S–G2 degradation of Cdt1, the cell line expressing full Cy-Cdt1-3NLSmyc (Cy-Cdt1) was subjected to siRNA treatment. In this case, silencing of Cul4(A+B), but not of Skp2, led to stabilization of Cy-Cdt1 in S–G2 (Figure 4D). On WB, an increase in total Cy-Cdt1 levels was apparent following silencing of Cul4(A+B), as compared to siLuc-treated cells. Such an increase was not detected for the endogenous Cdt1 (Figure 4D and F). When DDB1 was silenced, the number of Cdt1/Cyclin A double-positive cells increased (Figure 4E and F). As compared to when Cul4A and Cul4B were silenced individually, when both Cul4A and Cul4B were silenced together, Cy-Cdt1 was expressed in the majority of cells in the population, whether Cyclin A positive or negative (Figure 4E and representative images in Figure 4D). Taken together, our data argue that DDB1-Cul4 mediates the QXRVTDF-motif-dependent proteolysis pathway, while Skp2 mediates the Cy-motif-dependent pathway. Finally, in order to address whether Skp2 and DDB1-Cul4 are the major E3 ligases required for proteolysis of endogenous Cdt1, or additional components could mediate S–G2 degradation of Cdt1 in their absence, endogenous Cdt1 levels were examined in HeLa cells following siRNA treatment for these factors. In control siLuc-treated cells, less than 3% of Cyclin A-positive/Cdt1-positive cells were detected. In the population of Skp2- or Cul4(A+B)-silenced HeLa cells, 20–30% of Cyclin A-positive cells showed Cdt1 signal (Figure 5A and C), while when Skp2 and Cul4(A+B) were cosilenced, approximately 70% of Cyclin A-positive cells became positive for Cdt1, showing that cell cycle-specific proteolysis of Cdt1 was severely abrogated. We noticed that, while DNA content was not significantly increased in Skp2 and Cul4(A+B) cosilenced cells, they had larger nuclei (Supplementary Figure S7). We conclude that SCF-Skp2 and DDB1-Cul4 are major mediators of the cell cycle-specific proteolysis of Cdt1. Figure 5.Stabilization of Cdt1 in S–G2 phases after cosilencing of Skp2 and Cul4. HeLa cells were transfected with the indicated siRNAs and examined by double immunofluorescence with anti-Cyclin A and anti-Cdt1 antibodies (A) or Western blotting (WB) with indicated antibodies (B). (C) Quantification of immunofluorescence images shown in (A). Percentage of cells stained (+) or not stained (−) for Cdt1 and Cyclin A is shown. Download figure Download PowerPoint The Cul4-containing complex is active only in S phase, while SCF-Skp2 during both S and G2 phases Cdt1 is degraded in Cyclin A-positive S- and G2-phase cells. To address more precisely during which phases each E3 is active, Cdt1 proteins were examined in cells arrested at early S phase by thymidine–aphidicolin (S–0 h), washed and released for 2 h (S–2 h) into S phase, and for 7 h, when most cells are in G2 (as shown by flow-cytometry analysis). Full WT-Cdt1-3NLSmyc was undetectable in S–0 h, S–2 h and G2 samples (Figure 6), similar to the endogenous Cdt1 protein in HeLa cells (Nishitani et al, 2001). Full A6-Cdt1-3NLSmyc was similarly degraded, indicating that SCF-Skp2 targets Cdt1 both in S and G2 phases. Strikingly, however, full Cy-Cdt1-3NLSmyc was stable in the G2 population. In addition, we notice