The cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, associated with drugs of abuse, may provide a means to treat pain, mood, and addiction disorders affecting widespread segments of society. Whether the orphan G-protein coupled receptor GPR55 is also a cannabinoid receptor remains unclear as a result of conflicting pharmacological studies. GPR55 has been reported to be activated by exogenous and endogenous cannabinoid compounds but surprisingly also by the endogenous non-cannabinoid mediator lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI). We examined the effects of a representative panel of cannabinoid ligands and LPI on GPR55 using a β-arrestin-green fluorescent protein biosensor as a direct readout of agonist-mediated receptor activation. Our data demonstrate that AM251 and SR141716A (rimonabant), which are cannabinoid antagonists, and the lipid LPI, which is not a cannabinoid receptor ligand, are GPR55 agonists. They possess comparable efficacy in inducing β-arrestin trafficking and, moreover, activate the G-protein-dependent signaling of protein kinase CβII. Conversely, the potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist CP55,940 acts as a GPR55 antagonist/partial agonist. CP55,940 blocks GPR55 internalization, the formation of β-arrestin GPR55 complexes, and the phosphorylation of ERK1/2; CP55,940 produces only a slight amount of protein kinase CβII membrane recruitment but does not stimulate membrane remodeling like LPI, AM251, or rimonabant. Our studies provide a paradigm for measuring the responsiveness of GPR55 to a variety of ligand scaffolds comprising cannabinoid and novel compounds and suggest that at best GPR55 is an atypical cannabinoid responder. The activation of GPR55 by rimonabant may be responsible for some of the off-target effects that led to its removal as a potential obesity therapy. The cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and CB2 cannabinoid receptors, associated with drugs of abuse, may provide a means to treat pain, mood, and addiction disorders affecting widespread segments of society. Whether the orphan G-protein coupled receptor GPR55 is also a cannabinoid receptor remains unclear as a result of conflicting pharmacological studies. GPR55 has been reported to be activated by exogenous and endogenous cannabinoid compounds but surprisingly also by the endogenous non-cannabinoid mediator lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI). We examined the effects of a representative panel of cannabinoid ligands and LPI on GPR55 using a β-arrestin-green fluorescent protein biosensor as a direct readout of agonist-mediated receptor activation. Our data demonstrate that AM251 and SR141716A (rimonabant), which are cannabinoid antagonists, and the lipid LPI, which is not a cannabinoid receptor ligand, are GPR55 agonists. They possess comparable efficacy in inducing β-arrestin trafficking and, moreover, activate the G-protein-dependent signaling of protein kinase CβII. Conversely, the potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist CP55,940 acts as a GPR55 antagonist/partial agonist. CP55,940 blocks GPR55 internalization, the formation of β-arrestin GPR55 complexes, and the phosphorylation of ERK1/2; CP55,940 produces only a slight amount of protein kinase CβII membrane recruitment but does not stimulate membrane remodeling like LPI, AM251, or rimonabant. Our studies provide a paradigm for measuring the responsiveness of GPR55 to a variety of ligand scaffolds comprising cannabinoid and novel compounds and suggest that at best GPR55 is an atypical cannabinoid responder. The activation of GPR55 by rimonabant may be responsible for some of the off-target effects that led to its removal as a potential obesity therapy. The CB1 2The abbreviations used are: CB1cannabinoid receptor 1GPCRG-protein-coupled receptorLPIlysophosphatidylinositolCP55940(-)-3-[2-hydroxyl-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-4-[3-hydroxyl propyl] cyclohexan-1-olHU210(−)-11-hydroxyl-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol-dimethylheptylSR141716AN-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamideGTPγSguanosine 5′-3-O-(thio)triphosphateWIN 5212-2(R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(4-morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl](1-naphthalenyl)methanoneJWH015(2-methyl-1-propyl-1H-3yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone2-AG2-arachidonoyl glycerolAM2811-(2,4-dicholorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-methyl-N-1-piperidinyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamideAM2511-(2,4-dicholorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-morphoniyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamideO-16025-methyl-4-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-1,3-benzenediolO-19181,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl-2-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-benzenecannabidiol2-[1R-3-methyl-6R-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediolAbn-CBDabnormal cannabidiol, 4-[3-methyl-6R-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediolMAPKmitogen-activated protein kinaseERKextracellular-regulated protein kinasePKCprotein kinase CTHCtetrahydrocannabinolLPIlysophosphatidylinositolGFPgreen fluorescent proteinβarr2β-arrestin2HAhemagglutinin. and CB2 cannabinoid receptors comprise a two-member subfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) that are notable as the targets of the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) derivatives found in marijuana. More recently CB1 receptors along with other GPCRs have been promoted as therapeutic pharmacological targets in the billion dollar weight loss market for controversial drugs such as rimonabant (SR141716A) and Fen-phen. Thus, an important utility of cannabinoid family receptors to society appears to arise from their role in regulating a broad spectrum of addiction-based behaviors, and the addition of new members to the cannabinoid receptor family may have social and economic implications that reach far beyond the initial scientific discovery. As a consequence, the re-classification of an orphan GPCR as a cannabinoid family member should be done with caution requiring strict criteria of receptor activation by THC derivatives or endogenous cannabinoid compounds and a widespread agreement of the results by the scientific community. cannabinoid receptor 1 G-protein-coupled receptor lysophosphatidylinositol (-)-3-[2-hydroxyl-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-4-[3-hydroxyl propyl] cyclohexan-1-ol (−)-11-hydroxyl-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol-dimethylheptyl N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide guanosine 5′-3-O-(thio)triphosphate (R)-(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(4-morpholinyl)methyl]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazin-6-yl](1-naphthalenyl)methanone (2-methyl-1-propyl-1H-3yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone 2-arachidonoyl glycerol 1-(2,4-dicholorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-methyl-N-1-piperidinyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide 1-(2,4-dicholorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-morphoniyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide 5-methyl-4-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-1,3-benzenediol 1,3-dimethoxy-5-methyl-2-[(1R,6R)-3-methyl-6-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-benzene 2-[1R-3-methyl-6R-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol abnormal cannabidiol, 4-[3-methyl-6R-(1-methylethenyl)-2-cyclohexen-1-yl]-5-pentyl-1,3-benzenediol mitogen-activated protein kinase extracellular-regulated protein kinase protein kinase C tetrahydrocannabinol lysophosphatidylinositol green fluorescent protein 2β-arrestin2 hemagglutinin. Marijuana, one of the most widely abused substances (1Murray R.M. Morrison P.D. Henquet C. Di Forti M. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2007; 8: 885-895Crossref PubMed Scopus (256) Google Scholar), mediates many of its psychotropic effects by targeting CB1 receptors in the central nervous system, but studies with CB1 and CB2 knock-out mice indicate that the complex pharmacological properties on pain, mood, and memory exhibited by exogenous cannabinoids and the endogenous arachidonic acid-based endo-cannabinoids, including anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), are not fully explained by their activation of CB1 and CB2 (2Breivogel C.S. Griffin G. Di Marzo V. Martin B.R. Mol. Pharmacol. 2001; 60: 155-163Crossref PubMed Scopus (488) Google Scholar, 3Hájos N. Freund T.F. Chem. Phys. Lipids. 2002; 121: 73-82Crossref PubMed Scopus (118) Google Scholar, 4Wagner J.A. Varga K. Járai Z. Kunos G. Hypertension. 1999; 33: 429-434Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). The CB1 and CB2 receptors are 44% identical and signal through Gi/o-mediated pathways. Activation of either receptor is inhibitory for cAMP production via adenylyl cyclase and stimulatory for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (extracellular-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)) activation (5Felder C.C. Joyce K.E. Briley E.M. Mansouri J. Mackie K. Blond O. Lai Y. Ma A.L. Mitchell R.L. Mol. Pharmacol. 1995; 48: 443-450PubMed Google Scholar). However, the failure of these two receptors to account for the full complement of physiological effects observed with cannabinoid ligands has led to the hypothesis that additional cannabinoid-like receptors exist. The orphan GPCR, GPR55, which exhibits only 10–15% homology to the two human cannabinoid receptors (6Ross R.A. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2009; 30: 156-163Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar), is one of a number of plausible cannabinoid family member candidates (7Baker D. Pryce G. Davies W.L. Hiley C.R. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2006; 27: 1-4Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar). GPR55 was first identified and mapped to human chromosome 2q37 a decade ago (8Sawzdargo M. Nguyen T. Lee D.K. Lynch K.R. Cheng R. Heng H.H. George S.R. O'Dowd B.F. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 1999; 64: 193-198Crossref PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar). In the human central nervous system, it is predominantly localized to the caudate, putamen, and striatum (8Sawzdargo M. Nguyen T. Lee D.K. Lynch K.R. Cheng R. Heng H.H. George S.R. O'Dowd B.F. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 1999; 64: 193-198Crossref PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar), coupling to Gα13 (9Henstridge C.M. Balenga N.A. Ford L.A. Ross R.A. Waldhoer M. Irving A.J. FASEB J. 2009; 23: 183-193Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar, 10Ryberg E. Larsson N. Sjögren S. Hjorth S. Hermansson N.O. Leonova J. Elebring T. Nilsson K. Drmota T. Greasley P.J. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2007; 152: 1092-1101Crossref PubMed Scopus (1164) Google Scholar), Gα12, or Gαq (11Lauckner J.E. Jensen J.B. Chen H.Y. Lu H.C. Hille B. Mackie K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008; 105: 2699-2704Crossref PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar). GPR55 has been tested against a number of cannabinoid ligands with mixed results. Observations using a GTPγS functional assay indicate that GPR55 is activated by nanomolar concentrations of the endocannabinoids 2-AG, virodhamine, noladin ether, and palmitoylethanolamine (10Ryberg E. Larsson N. Sjögren S. Hjorth S. Hermansson N.O. Leonova J. Elebring T. Nilsson K. Drmota T. Greasley P.J. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2007; 152: 1092-1101Crossref PubMed Scopus (1164) Google Scholar) and the atypical cannabinoids Abn-CBD and O-1602 (12Johns D.G. Behm D.J. Walker D.J. Ao Z. Shapland E.M. Daniels D.A. Riddick M. Dowell S. Staton P.C. Green P. Shabon U. Bao W. Aiyar N. Yue T.L. Brown A.J. Morrison A.D. Douglas S.A. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2007; 152: 825-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (196) Google Scholar) as well as by the drugs CP55,950, HU210, and Δ9-THC (11Lauckner J.E. Jensen J.B. Chen H.Y. Lu H.C. Hille B. Mackie K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008; 105: 2699-2704Crossref PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar). Exposure of GPR55 to the cannabinoids THC and JWH015 in dorsal root ganglion neurons and in receptor-transfected HEK293 cells correlates with increases of intracellular Ca2+ (11Lauckner J.E. Jensen J.B. Chen H.Y. Lu H.C. Hille B. Mackie K. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2008; 105: 2699-2704Crossref PubMed Scopus (513) Google Scholar). In contrast, GPR55 is insensitive to the CB1 inverse agonist AM281 and the potent cannabinoid agonist WIN55212-2 but is antagonized by the marijuana constituent CBD (9Henstridge C.M. Balenga N.A. Ford L.A. Ross R.A. Waldhoer M. Irving A.J. FASEB J. 2009; 23: 183-193Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar, 10Ryberg E. Larsson N. Sjögren S. Hjorth S. Hermansson N.O. Leonova J. Elebring T. Nilsson K. Drmota T. Greasley P.J. Br. J. Pharmacol. 2007; 152: 1092-1101Crossref PubMed Scopus (1164) Google Scholar). However, Oka et al. (13Oka S. Nakajima K. Yamashita A. Kishimoto S. Sugiura T. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007; 362: 928-934Crossref PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar) reported that GPR55 is not a typical cannabinoid receptor, as numerous endogenous and synthetic cannabinoids, including many mentioned above, had no effect on GPR55 activity. They present compelling data suggesting that the endogenous lipid LPI and its 2-arachidonyl analogs are agonists at GPR55 as a result of their abilities to phosphorylate extracellular-regulated kinase and induce calcium signaling (13Oka S. Nakajima K. Yamashita A. Kishimoto S. Sugiura T. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2007; 362: 928-934Crossref PubMed Scopus (345) Google Scholar, 14Oka S. Toshida T. Maruyama K. Nakajima K. Yamashita A. Sugiura T. J. Biochem. 2009; 145: 13-20Crossref PubMed Scopus (157) Google Scholar). Further studies indicate that LPI and the rimonabant-like CB1 inverse agonist AM251 induce oscillatory Ca2+ release through Gα13 and RhoA (9Henstridge C.M. Balenga N.A. Ford L.A. Ross R.A. Waldhoer M. Irving A.J. FASEB J. 2009; 23: 183-193Crossref PubMed Scopus (233) Google Scholar). These reports were all performed in HEK 293 cells, yet each documented a distinct and conflicting chemical space of agonists that recognized GPR55. To resolve these inconsistencies in classification, an alternative approach for identifying GPR55 ligands that is insensitive to the endogenous complement of cellular receptors could circumvent many of the challenges that have arisen in the measurements of G-protein signaling. β-Arrestins are intracellular proteins that bind and desensitize activated GPCRs and in the process form stable receptor/arrestin signaling complexes (15Gurevich E.V. Gurevich V.V. Genome Biology. 2006; 7: 236Crossref PubMed Scopus (231) Google Scholar, 16Shenoy S.K. Lefkowitz R.J. Nat. Cell Biol. 2005; 7: 1159-1161Crossref PubMed Scopus (9) Google Scholar). β-Arrestin redistribution to the activated membrane-bound receptor represents one of the early intracellular events provoked by agonist binding and, consequently, is less prone to a false positive or negative readout as compared with studying a downstream signaling event as a readout of receptor activation. β-arrestin-green fluorescent chimeras can make this process attractive to monitor by forming remarkably sensitive and specific probes of GPCR activation that are independent of downstream G-protein-mediated signaling (17Barak L.S. Ferguson S.S. Zhang J. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 27497-27500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (396) Google Scholar, 18Marion S. Oakley R.H. Kim K.M. Caron M.G. Barak L.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2006; 281: 2932-2938Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 19McGuinness D. Malikzay A. Visconti R. Lin K. Bayne M. Monsma F. Lunn C.A. J. Biomol. Screen. 2009; 14: 49-58Crossref PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar). We have determined GPR55 responsiveness to a representative panel of cannabinoid ligands and LPI in the presence (and absence) of a β-arrestin2-green fluorescent protein (βarr2-GFP) biosensor. Our data demonstrate that LPI, the CB1 inverse agonist/antagonists SR141716A, and AM251 are GPR55 agonists, and the CB1 agonist CP55940 is a GPR55 antagonist/partial agonist. These data together with our inability to observe activation of GPR55 by Δ9-THC and endocannabinoids indicate that GPR55 should be classified as an atypical cannabinoid receptor at best. Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium, Hanks' balanced salt solution, and fetal bovine serum were purchased from Cellgro, Mediatech, Inc. and Hyclone (Fisher). LPI, cannabidiol, poly-d-lysine, and anti-phospho-ERK antibodies were purchased from Sigma. WIN55212-2, CP55,940, O-1602, JWH015, and AM281 were obtained from Tocris (Ellsville, MO). Anandamide, methanandamide, 2-AG, AM251, O-1918, and abnormal cannabidiol (Abn-CBD) were purchased from Cayman Chemicals (Ann Arbor, MI). SR141716A and SR144528 were obtained from the National Institute on Drug Abuse drug supply program at the Research Triangle Institute). HU210 was a generous gift from Dr. R. Mechoulam (Hebrew University). Anti-HA mouse monoclonal antibody was purchased from Covance (Emeryville, CA). Actin monoclonal antibody was purchased from MP Biomedicals (Aurora, OH). Alexa Fluor 568 goat anti-mouse antibody, zeocin, SlowFade Gold, and Lipofectamine 2000 were purchased from Invitrogen. IRDye 800-conjugated anti-mouse IgG was from LI-COR. Protease inhibitors were from Roche Applied Science. G418 was purchased from A. G. Scientific (San Diego, CA). HEK293 cells were from American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA), and HA-GPR55E and CB1RE plasmids and cell lines were provided by the Duke University GPCR Assay Bank. All other reagents were obtained from Sigma or other standard sources. βarr2-GFP is described in Barak (17Barak L.S. Ferguson S.S. Zhang J. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 27497-27500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (396) Google Scholar). Protein kinase CβII (PKCβII)-GFP is described in Feng et al. (20Feng X. Zhang J. Barak L.S. Meyer T. Caron M.G. Hannun Y.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1998; 273: 10755-10762Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar). Human GPR55 in the vector pCMV-sport6 (NIH Image Consortium) were transiently transfected in HEK293 cells with (5:1 ratio) and without βarr2-GFP or PKCβII-GFP plasmids using Lipofectamine 2000 as specified by the manufacturer or coprecipitation with calcium phosphate as previously described (17Barak L.S. Ferguson S.S. Zhang J. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1997; 272: 27497-27500Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (396) Google Scholar). The human N-terminal HA-tagged GPR55E receptor in pCDNA3.1zeo(−) was constructed from GPR55 by inserting the HA sequence YPYDVPDYA after the start Met of the receptor and modifying its C terminus by replacing the terminal GPR55 amino acid sequence HRPSRVQLVLQDTTISRG by the four-amino acid linker CAAA containing a putative cysteine palmitoylation site followed by the human vasopressin2 receptor terminal tail sequence RGRTPPSLGPQDESCTTASSSLAKDTSS (21Oakley R.H. Laporte S.A. Holt J.A. Barak L.S. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 32248-32257Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (454) Google Scholar). A U2OS cell line stably expressing GPR55E and βarr2-GFP (Renilla) was engineered using 0.4 mg/ml zeocin and 0.4 mg/ml G418 selection and maintained in 100 μg/ml G418 and 50 μg/ml zeocin in a 37 °C, 5% CO2 incubator. The plasmid CB1RE was constructed by replacing the human cannabinoid receptor C-tail, the segment after the amino acid sequence FPSC, by the linker AAA and the human substance P receptor tail PFISAGDYEGLEMKSTRYLQTQGSVYKVSRLETTISTVVGAHEEEPEDGPKATPSSLDLTSNCSSRSDSKTMTESFSFSSNVLS. The CB1-RE cell line was constructed as above. HEK 293 cells transiently expressing GPR55 receptors and βarr2-GFP were utilized 48 h after transfection. U2OS cells permanently expressing HA-GPR55E and βarr2-GFP were plated onto coverslips that were placed in 24-well plates which had been pretreated for 1 h with 0.02 mg/ml poly-d-lysine. Cells were maintained at 37 °C in 5% CO2 until ready for experiments (80–85% confluent) and washed once with Hanks' balanced salt solution before drug application. Agonist-stimulated redistribution of βarr2-GFP was assessed after drug treatment for 40 min. To measure the effects of antagonists, both agonist and antagonist were co-applied. Cells were then fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 min at room temperature followed by three washes with Hanks' balanced salt solution. Glass coverslips were mounted on slides in SlowFade Gold mounting media and were imaged on a (Nikon E800) fluorescence microscope using a 40× oil objective and 488-nm excitation for GFP and 568-nm excitation for Alexa Fluor 568 antibody. Confocal images were acquired with Leica TCS SP5 and Zeiss LSM-510 microscopes. GPR55-expressing cells grown on coverslips were incubated over ice for 40 min with a 1:500 dilution of mouse monoclonal anti-HA antibody in blocking buffer (3% bovine serum albumin in phosphate-buffered saline). This was followed by appropriate washes and a 40-min incubation with 1:1500 dilution of Alexa Fluor 568 goat anti-mouse secondary antibody. Antibody-labeled cells were treated with agonist alone or in combination with antagonist for 40 min at 37 °C. Cells were imaged as described above. GPR55E-expressing cells were grown until 90% confluent in poly-d-lysine-treated 96-well glass-bottom plates (BD Falcon). Cells were incubated with a mouse monoclonal anti-HA antibody at a 1:100 dilution for 45-min at 37 °C. Cells were washed once with phosphate-buffered saline before drug treatment, fixed in paraformaldehyde as described, and washed 3 times with phosphate-buffered saline for 5 min each. Cells were then treated with LI-COR Odyssey blocking buffer for 45 min at room temperature and then incubated in the dark with the secondary IRDye 800-conjugated anti-mouse IgG antibody diluted 1:1000 in LI-COR blocking buffer for 1 h at room temperature. Cells were then washed 5 times in TBST (137 mm NaCl, 10 mm Tris with 0.05% Tween 20) and scanned on the LI-COR Odyssey Infrared Imager set at 169 μm resolution, 4 focus offset, and 4.5–6 intensity. Data were analyzed using Excel and Prism 4.0 software. GPR55E-expressing U2OS cells were grown to sub-confluence in 60-mm plates and serum-starved overnight before assay. After drug treatment the cells were disrupted in a lysis buffer (50 mm Hepes, 150 mm NaCl, 1 mm EDTA, 1 mm EGTA, 10% glycerol, 1% Triton X-100, 10 μm MgCl2, 20 mm p-nitrophenyl phosphate, 1 mm Na3VO4, 25 mm NaF, and a protease inhibitor mixture (1:25, pH 7.5). Lysates were immediately placed on ice for 10 min and then centrifuged at 16,000 × g for 30 min at 4 °C. Supernatants, corresponding to the cytosolic fraction, were collected, and protein concentrations were determined by the Bradford assay (Bio-Rad) using bovine serum albumin as a standard. Cytosolic fractions (20 μg) were separated on a 10% gel by SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblotting (22Gallagher S. Winston S.E. Fuller S.A. Hurrell J.G. Curr. Protoc. Immunol. 2008; (Chapter 8, Unit 8.10)Google Scholar). Antibodies against double-phosphorylated ERK1/2 (1:5000) were detected using a Fuji imager LAS-1000 (Fujifilm Life Science, Woodbridge, CT). A monoclonal antibody against actin (1:10,000) was used to confirm equal protein loading. Densitometric analysis was performed using ImageJ software (rsb.nih.gov/ij). The value obtained for both ERK1 and ERK2 was normalized to anti-actin levels. The data were normalized to control and presented as percentage stimulation. HEK 293 cells plated in 35-mm glass well Matek plastic dishes were transiently transfected with 175 μl of solution containing 1.5 μg/ml PKCβII-GFP cDNA or the PKC plasmid and 5 μg/ml human GPR55 cDNA in pCMV-Sport6 (Open Biosystems, Huntsville, Al) using a standard calcium phosphate protocol. Cells expressing GPR55 and PKCβII-GFP were utilized 24 h after transfection. Cells were washed with warm minimum Eagle's medium and maintained at 37 °C in 5% CO2 for 30–45 min after drug application. Agonist stimulated redistribution of PKCβII-GFP was assessed after drug treatment at room temperature. βarr2-GFP aggregates were identified using a wavelet-based Microsoft Windows compatible computer program written in the MatLab programming environment. A program algorithm extracts from two-dimensional images those pixels that generate objects of interest that fall within a predetermined range of sizes and intensities and that are embedded among widely varying local backgrounds (L. Barak, available from the Duke University GPCR Assay Bank). Concentration-effect curves for agonist-mediated receptor activation and competition-inhibition curves for antagonist studies were analyzed by nonlinear regression techniques using GraphPad Prism 4.0 software (GraphPad, San Diego, CA), and data were fitted to sigmoidal dose-response curves to obtain EC50 or IC50 values. The KI (apparent) value of the antagonist was calculated using the Cheng-Prusoff equation, KI = IC50/(1 + [L]/EC50) (23Cheng Y. Prusoff W.H. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1973; 22: 3099-3108Crossref PubMed Scopus (12294) Google Scholar), where [L] is the agonist concentration. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way analysis of variance followed by Dunnett's post-test or two-tailed unpaired Student's t test. p values of <0.05 were considered significant. Arrestin proteins mediate GPCR desensitization by binding to activated GPCRs, and in the process the arrestins relocate from the cytosol to form a complex with the membrane receptor. The strength of this association determines the subsequent fate of the complex, with weaker β-arrestin-receptor complexes dissociating at the plasma membrane while in clathrin-coated pits and more stable ones internalizing and concentrating in cytosolic endosomes (18Marion S. Oakley R.H. Kim K.M. Caron M.G. Barak L.S. J. Biol. Chem. 2006; 281: 2932-2938Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (86) Google Scholar, 21Oakley R.H. Laporte S.A. Holt J.A. Barak L.S. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 32248-32257Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (454) Google Scholar). In the absence of agonist, β-arrestin-GFP is uniformly distributed in the cytoplasm with no apparent compartmentalization at the plasma membrane or nucleus (Fig. 1, A and D). Using β-arrestin-GFP as a biosensor of receptor activation, the relatively weak β-arrestin-receptor complexes are observed as membrane-associated fluorescence aggregates and the more stable ones as brighter intracellular objects. HEK293 cells transiently transfected with human GPR55 and βarr2-GFP develop membrane aggregates when treated with 10 μm LPI (Fig. 1, A and B). The addition of serine phosphorylation sites to a GPCR C-tail can increase receptor affinity for arrestin without changing its response profile to different ligands (21Oakley R.H. Laporte S.A. Holt J.A. Barak L.S. Caron M.G. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 32248-32257Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (454) Google Scholar, 24Haasen D. Schnapp A. Valler M.J. Heilker R. Methods Enzymol. 2006; 414: 121-139Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar). Therefore, to increase GPR55 assay sensitivity, we employed an HA-epitope-tagged variant of GPR55 with a serine enhanced C terminus (HA-GPR55E). This resulted in a much more robust βarr2-GFP response in HEK-293 cells when HA-GPR55E was exposed to 10 μm LPI (Fig. 1C). A time-course analysis of ligand treatment demonstrated robust agonist-mediated βarr2-GFP trafficking at 40-min ligand treatment (data not shown). Consequently, we used U2OS cells stably transfected with HA-GPR55E and βarr2-GFP for subsequent ligand characterization. Fig. 1D shows the pattern of βarr2-GFP expression in U2OS cells in the absence of agonist. No βarr2-GFP fluorescence was observed at the plasma membrane. Immunofluorescence images of anti-HA antibody labeling followed by Alexa Fluor secondary antibody verify the plasma membrane expression of HA-tagged GPR55E (Fig. 1E), with no membrane fluorescence visible in the absence of primary HA-antibody treatment (Fig. 1G). Using real-time confocal microscopy in live U2OS cells stably coexpressed with GPR55E and βarr2-GFP, we observed that 3 μm LPI induced a rapid relocation (60–90s time scale) of βarr2-GFP complex en masse to plasma membrane-bound GPR55E with a concomitant depletion of cytosolic fluorescence (see the supplemental videos). We next investigated the concentration dependence of ligands to induce internalization of GPR55·βarr2-GFP complexes. This LPI mediated-response of βarr2-GFP occurs with an EC50 of 1.2 μm (Figs. 2, A and B), whereas the CB1 receptor inverse agonist/antagonists SR141716A and AM251 produce recruitment of βarr2-GFP to GPR55E receptors with EC50 values of 3.9 and 9.6 μm, respectively (Fig. 2, C–F). Thus, these ligands act as GPR55E agonists and have efficacies similar to LPI (Fig. 2H). We also treated the GPR55E/βarr-GFP U2OS cells with a group of 15 structurally diverse cannabinoid ligands comprised of classic, non-classic, and endogenous agonists and antagonists (Table 1). None of the compounds at concentrations upward of 10–30 μm activated GPR55E to produce a distribution of βarr2-GFP different from the basal state or that observed in vehicle-treated cells. As a control, U2OS cells expressing CB1 receptors were exposed to vehicle, LPI, and SR141716A, and no βarr2-GFP trafficking was observed (Fig. 3, A–C), whereas CP55,940, a potent CB1 receptor agonist, activated βarr2-GFP trafficking in these cells (Fig. 3D).TABLE 1β-Arrestin-dependent ligand-mediated activation of GPR55ELigandGPR55 EC50 (95% CI)Relative efficacy ± S.E.CB1 (KI)aPreviously published. or EC50LPI1.2 μm (0.3–4.0), agonist1.0 ± 0.13No response up to 30 μmSR141716A3.9 μm (0.9–17), agonist0.85 ± 0.15(3.3 nm)aPreviously published. (31Kapur A. Samaniego P. Thakur G.A. Makriyannis A. Abood M.E. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008; 325: 341-348Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar), inverse agonistAM2519.6 μm (3.6–26), agonist1.21 ± 0.13(7.5 nm)aPreviously published. (31Kapur A. Samaniego P. Thakur G.A. Makriyannis A. Abood M.E. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008; 325: 341-348Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar), inverse agonistAM281No response up to 30 μm(21 nm)aPreviously published. (31Kapur A. Samaniego P. Thakur G.A. Makriyannis A. Abood M.E. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2008; 325: 341-348Crossref PubMed Scopus (29) Google Scholar), inverse agonist2-AGNo response