Schistosome infections are characterized by prominent T cell hyporesponsiveness during the chronic stage of infection. We found that schistosome-specific phosphatidylserine (PS) activated TLR2 and affected dendritic cells such that mature dendritic cells gained the ability to induce the development of IL-10-producing regulatory T cells. Using mass spectrometry, schistosomal lysophosphatidylserine (lyso-PS) was identified as the TLR2-activating molecule. This activity appears to be a unique property of schistosomal lyso-PS, containing specific acyl chains, because neither a synthetic lyso-PS (16:0) nor PS isolated from the mammalian host activates TLR2. Taken together, these findings provide evidence for a novel host-parasite interaction that may be central to long term survival of the parasite and limited host pathology with implications beyond parasitology. Schistosome infections are characterized by prominent T cell hyporesponsiveness during the chronic stage of infection. We found that schistosome-specific phosphatidylserine (PS) activated TLR2 and affected dendritic cells such that mature dendritic cells gained the ability to induce the development of IL-10-producing regulatory T cells. Using mass spectrometry, schistosomal lysophosphatidylserine (lyso-PS) was identified as the TLR2-activating molecule. This activity appears to be a unique property of schistosomal lyso-PS, containing specific acyl chains, because neither a synthetic lyso-PS (16:0) nor PS isolated from the mammalian host activates TLR2. Taken together, these findings provide evidence for a novel host-parasite interaction that may be central to long term survival of the parasite and limited host pathology with implications beyond parasitology. Schistosomes are trematodes that cause schistosomiasis, a chronic blood-vascular disease that is associated with a Th2 response (1Maizels R.M. Bundy D.A. Selkirk M.E. Smith D.F. Anderson R.M. Nature. 1993; 365: 797-805Google Scholar), but at chronic stages of infection also with enhanced IL-10 production and suppressed T cell proliferation to parasite antigens (2King C.L. Medhat A. Malhotra I. Nafeh M. Helmy A. Khaudary J. Ibrahim S. El Sherbiny M. Zaky S. Stupi R.J. Brustoski K. Shehata M. Shata M.T. J. Immunol. 1996; 156: 4715-4721Google Scholar). The anti-inflammatory responses induced by helminths seem to enable parasite survival within the host with limited inflammatory responses that might otherwise be destructive to the host tissues. This controlled immune response, central to chronic helminth infections, may arise from signals received from the pathogen, as the chronic presence of metabolically active helminths is mirrored by persistent challenge of the immune system with an array of molecules associated with parasite metabolism, reproduction, and attrition. Recognition of an invading microorganism by cells of the immune system involves pathogen-associated molecular patterns that bind specific germline-encoded receptors on the host cells. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 1The abbreviations used are: TLR, Toll-like receptor; PS, phosphatidylserine; SEA, water-soluble egg antigen; MF, neutral maturation factors; IL, interleukin; FCS, fetal calf serum; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; PMA, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; HKLM, heat-killed Listeria monocytogenes . with extracellular leucine-rich domains and intracellular IL-1 receptor homology domain are important members of such germline-encoded receptors and actively participate in the stimulation of innate immune responses. To date, ten TLR homologs have been found in humans, and ligands have been identified for several TLRs, most of which are of bacterial origin (3Poltorak A. He X. Smirnova I. Liu M.Y. Huffel C.V. Du X. Birdwell D. Alejos E. Silva M. Galanos C. Freudenberg M. Ricciardi-Castagnoli P. Layton B. Beutler B. Science. 1998; 282: 2085-2088Google Scholar, 4Hemmi H. Takeuchi O. Kawai T. Kaisho T. Sato S. Sanjo H. Matsumoto M. Hoshino K. Wagner H. Takeda K. Akira S. Nature. 2000; 408: 740-745Google Scholar, 5Means T.K. Lien E. Yoshimura A. Wang S. Golenbock D.T. Fenton M.J. J. Immunol. 1999; 163: 6748-6755Crossref Google Scholar). Instructions for development of specific immune responses are largely mediated by dendritic cells, which are present in peripheral tissues such as sentinel dendritic cells, and upon activation migrate to the draining lymph nodes to activate naive T cells, not only by presenting antigen but also by providing signals that determine polarization of T cell development toward a Th1 (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar, 7Cella M. Salio M. Sakakibara Y. Langen H. Julkunen I. Lanzavecchia A. J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189: 821-829Google Scholar), Th2 (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar), or T regulatory phenotype (8McGuirk P. McCann C. Mills K.H. J. Exp. Med. 2002; 195: 221-231Google Scholar). In this way, dendritic cells can play a central role in providing information on the nature of the invading pathogen by integrating signals received and conveying them to T cells by expressing a variety of factors that will determine differentiation of T cells into polarized subsets (9Kalinski P. Hilkens C.M. Wierenga E.A. Kapsenberg M.L. Immunol. Today. 1999; 20: 561-567Google Scholar). Dendritic cells express several TLRs, depending on their developmental stage and lineage (10Visintin A. Mazzoni A. Spitzer J.H. Wyllie D.H. Dower S.K. Segal D.M. J. Immunol. 2001; 166: 249-255Google Scholar, 11Kadowaki N. Ho S. Antonenko S. de Waal M.R. Kastelein R.A. Bazan F. Liu Y.J. J. Exp. Med. 2001; 194: 863-870Google Scholar). Recently, several studies have shown that bacterial products induce maturation of dendritic cells via TLRs (12Michelsen K.S. Aicher A. Mohaupt M. Hartung T. Dimmeler S. Kirschning C.J. Schumann R.R. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 25680-25686Google Scholar,13Hertz C.J. Kiertscher S.M. Godowski P.J. Bouis D.A. Norgard M.V. Roth M.D. Modlin R.L. J. Immunol. 2001; 166: 2444-2450Google Scholar). Furthermore, activation of TLR2 or TLR4 in immature dendritic cells can lead to expression of distinct cytokine profiles (14Re F. Strominger J.L. J. Biol. Chem. 2001; 276: 37692-37699Google Scholar). However, it is still unclear to what extent activation of TLRs on dendritic cells influences the T cell phenotype associated with infectious diseases. Several bacterial products considered as pathogen-associated molecular patterns have been shown to contain lipid moieties that are essential for activation of TLRs (15Muhlradt P.F. Kiess M. Meyer H. Sussmuth R. Jung G. J. Exp. Med. 1997; 185: 1951-1958Google Scholar, 16Noss E.H. Pai R.K. Sellati T.J. Radolf J.D. Belisle J. Golenbock D.T. Boom W.H. Harding C.V. J. Immunol. 2001; 167: 910-918Google Scholar, 17Aliprantis A.O. Yang R.B. Mark M.R. Suggett S. Devaux B. Radolf J.D. Klimpel G.R. Godowski P. Zychlinsky A. Science. 1999; 285: 736-739Google Scholar). Indeed, growing interest in lipids and their receptor biology has generated insights into interaction of this class of molecules with the immune system and into the role they may play in immunopathologies (18Hla T. Lee M.J. Ancellin N. Paik J.H. Kluk M.J. Science. 2001; 294: 1875-1878Google Scholar). A variety of lipid moieties can bind to specific receptors on the cells of the innate immune system and thereby play a role in immune regulation. For example, the binding of lysophosphatidylcholine to its receptor appears to have important immunomodulatory function because the deletion of the murine gene encoding the lysophosphatidylcholine-R (that is constitutively expressed in immune cells) resulted in adult-onset autoimmune disease similar to human systemic lupus erythematosus (19Le L.Q. Kabarowski J.H. Weng Z. Satterthwaite A.B. Harvill E.T. Jensen E.R. Miller J.F. Witte O.N. Immunity. 2001; 14: 561-571Google Scholar), α-galactosylceramide prevents onset or recurrence of autoimmune diabetes when presented in the context of the surface molecule CD1d (20Sharif S. Arreaza G.A. Zucker P. Mi Q.S. Sondhi J. Naidenko O.V. Kronenberg M. Koezuka Y. Delovitch T.L. Gombert J.M. Leite-De-Moraes M. Gouarin C. Zhu R. Hameg A. Nakayama T. Taniguchi M. Lepault F. Lehuen A. Bach J.F. Herbelin A. Nat. Med. 2001; 7: 1057-1062Google Scholar), and the platelet activating factor receptor induces the production of pro- or anti-inflammatory mediators when activated by PAF or oxidized phosphatidylcholine (21Walterscheid J.P. Ullrich S.E. Nghiem D.X. J. Exp. Med. 2002; 195: 171-179Google Scholar). Here, we have concentrated on the role of schistosome lipids in interaction with the innate immune system. We stimulated dendritic cells with lipid classes derived from Schistosoma mansonieggs and adult worms and found that the fraction containing phosphatidylserine (PS) polarized the maturation of dendritic cells, resulting in Th2 skewing and the development of T regulatory cells. The activation of TLR2 on dendritic cells by PS is essential for induction of development of IL-10-producing regulatory T cells. Using HPLC and tandem mass spectrometry, a unique schistosomal lysophosphatidylserine (lyso-PS) was identified as the TLR2-activating molecule. Thus, specific lyso-PS species from schistosomes act on dendritic cells via TLR2 to modify their T cell-stimulating property in such manner that regulatory T cells are induced. Lipids were isolated from S. mansoni adult worms and eggs and from the liver of a non-infected hamster and were fractionated using a TEAE-cellulose column as detailed before (22Van der Kleij D. Tielens A.G. Yazdanbakhsh M. Infect Immun. 1999; 67: 5946-5950Google Scholar). Briefly, S. mansoni adult worms were collected by perfusion of golden hamsters 45–48 days after infection. S. mansoni eggs were isolated from livers of infected hamsters after treatment of the liver homogenate with trypsin. Total lipids were isolated according to the method described by Bligh and Dyer (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.J. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology. 1959; 37: 911-917Google Scholar) and were separated into different classes using TEAE-cellulose column chromatography as described by Rouser et al. (24Rouser G. Kritchevsky G. Yamamoto A. Simon G. Galli C. Bauman A.J. Methods Enzymol. 1969; 14: 272-317Google Scholar). The fractions containing PS were used for stimulation of dendritic cells and HEK 293 cells. Synthetic lyso-PS (16:0) was purchased from Sigma. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from venous blood of healthy volunteers by density centrifugation on Ficoll. For peripheral blood mononuclear cell stimulation, cells were seeded in 96-well flat-bottom plates at 1 × 106 cells/well in RPMI medium as detailed before (25Grogan J.L. Kremsner P.G. Deelder A.M. Yazdanbakhsh M. European Journal of Immunology. 1996; 26: 1365-1370Google Scholar) in the presence of 5% FCS (Greiner) and were stimulated with 100 ng/ml lipopolysaccharide (Sigma) or 10 μg/ml schistosomal lipids that were dissolved by water bath sonication in RPMI containing 0.2% Me2SO. For generation of dendritic cells, monocytes were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells using a Percoll gradient as described previously (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar) and were cultured in RPMI medium supplemented with 10% FCS, human rGM-CSF (500 units/ml, specific activity 1.11 × 107 units/mg, a gift from Schering-Plough, Uden, The Netherlands) and human rIL-4 (250 units/ml) (R&D Systems). At day 3, the culture medium including the supplements was refreshed. At day 6, CD1a+CD14− immature dendritic cells were matured with maturation factors (MF) (either LPS (100 ng/ml) or a combination of IL-1β (10 ng/ml) (Strathmann Biotechnology, Hannover, Germany) and tumor necrosis factor α (50 ng/ml) (Strathman biotech) in the presence of IFN-γ (103 units/ml), which induces the development of dendritic cells that stimulate the polarization of naive T cells into Th1 (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar); PGE2 (10 μm), which induces the development of dendritic cells that stimulate the polarization of naive T cells into Th2 (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar); schistosome water-soluble egg antigen (SEA) (100 μg/ml), a parasite extract that induces the development of dendritic cells that stimulate the polarization of naive T cells into Th2 (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar); or phosphatidylserine isolated from schistosome eggs or adult worms (10 μg/ml). No differences in the level of maturation of dendritic cells exposed to the various compounds were found, as detected by CD83, CD80, CD86, and HLA-DR expression (data not shown), and therefore differential maturation could not play a role in the polarizing effects observed. In blocking experiments, 10 μg/ml of the anti-TLR2 antibody TL2.1 (26Lien E. Sellati T.J. Yoshimura A. Flo T.H. Rawadi G. Finberg R.W. Carroll J.D. Espevik T. Ingalls R.R. Radolf J.D. Golenbock D.T. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 19;274: 33419-33425Google Scholar) or a mouse IgG2 control antibody (CLB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) was added during dendritic cell maturation. After 48 h, mature CD1a+ CD83+dendritic cells were obtained. To measure cytokine production, 2 × 104 dendritic cells were co-cultured with 2 × 104 CD40L-expressing mouse fibroblasts (J558 cells; a kind gift from Dr. P. Lane, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK). Levels of IL12p70 were determined in 24-h supernatants by ELISA using monoclonal antibodies 20C2 (BD Biosciences) and biotinylated mouse-anti-hu IL-12 C8.6 (BD Biosciences) as coating and detection antibodies, respectively. Levels of IL-8 were determined using a commercial ELISA kit (CLB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) following the manufacturer's recommendations. Highly purified CD4+CD45RA+CD45RO− naive Th cells (>98% as assessed by flow cytometry) were purified from peripheral blood mononuclear cells using a human CD4+/CD45RO− column kit (R & D Systems). 2 × 104 naive Th cells were co-cultured with 5 × 103 mature dendritic cells in the presence of superantigen Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin B (Sigma) at a final concentration of 100 pg/ml in 96-well flat-bottom culture plates (Costar). At day 5, rhuIL-2 (10 units/ml, Cetus Corp., Emeryville, CA) was added and the cultures were expanded. On day 12, the quiescent Th cells were restimulated with immobilized CD3 mAb (CLB-T3/3, CLB, Amsterdam, The Netherlands) and soluble CD28 mAb (CLB-CD28/1, CLB), and IL-10 was measured in 24-h supernatants using a commercial kit (CLB) following the manufacturer's recommendations. To measure the frequency of IL-4- and IFN-γ-producing cells, Th cells were restimulated with PMA (Sigma) and ionomycin (Sigma) in the presence of brefeldinA (Sigma) for 6 h. To detect intracellular production of IL-4 and IFN-γ, cells were stained using anti-hu-IL-4-PE (BD Biosciences) and anti-hu-IFN-γ-FITC (BD Biosciences). To assess regulatory capacity, the effect of T cells (grown in the presence of dendritic cells that were matured with MF and during maturation exposed to IFN-γ, PGE2, SEA, PS from eggs or PS from worms) on proliferation of autologous Th cells was measured. T cells grown in the presence of unpolarized dendritic cells (matured with MF) were used as target cells for regulation. Effector T cells (5 × 104 cells/well) were co-cultured with target cells (5 × 104 cells/well) in the presence of unpolarized mature dendritic cells (MF dendritic cells) (5 × 103 cells/well). Cultures were done in triplicates. [3H]Thymidine was added after 3 days of culture, and incorporation was measured after a 16-h pulse. The background proliferation of effector T cells (i.e. T-effector + dendritic cells) was subtracted from the proliferation when target cells were added (i.e. T-effector + dendritic cells + T-target). Wild-type and TLR2 knockout mice (27Takeuchi O. Hoshino K. Akira S. J. Immunol. 2000; 165: 5392-5396Google Scholar, 28Takeuchi O. Hoshino K. Kawai T. Sanjo H. Takada H. Ogawa T. Takeda K. Akira S. Immunity. 1999; 11: 443-451Google Scholar) were inoculated intraperitoneally with 2.5 ml of 3% thioglycolate solution. Peritoneal exudate cells were harvested with cold RPMI 1640 medium containing 10% FCS and 10 μg/ml ciprofloxacin (gift from Miles Pharmaceuticals, West Haven, CT) 72 h post-inoculation. The cells were washed and seeded at a density of 0.5 × 106 cells/well in 96-well flat-bottom plates. After 24 h, non-adherent cells were removed by washing, and the adherent cells were stimulated with repurified LPS (100 pg/ml) fromEscherichia coli K 235 (gift from S. Vogel, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD), heat-killedListeria monocytogenes (HKLM) (106 cells/ml) (29Flo T.H. Halaas O. Lien E. Ryan L. Teti G. Golenbock D.T. Sundan A. Espevik T. J. Immunol. 2000; 164: 2064-2069Google Scholar), and schistosomal egg and adult worm PS (10 μg/ml). Tumor necrosis factor α production was measured after 20 h using a commercial DuoSet ELISA kit (R & D Systems). HEK 293 cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (BioWhittaker) supplemented with 10% FCS (Hyclone) and 10 μg/ml ciprofloxacin. The cells were transiently transfected at a density of 0.2 × 106cells/well in 12-well plates using PolyFect transfection reagent (Qiagen) with 0.5 μg/transfection TLR-expression plasmid and 0.5 μg/transfection pELAM-luc, a reporter construct that transcribes firefly luciferase from an NF-κB-dependent promoter, as described previously (30Chow J.C. Young D.W. Golenbock D.T. Christ W.J. Gusovsky F. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 10689-10692Google Scholar). FLAG-tagged human TLR1 and TLR2 were provided by Tularic (San Francisco, CA), FLAG-tagged TLR3 was PCR-cloned from a cDNA (DNAX, Palo Alto, CA) into pFLAG-CMV1. Non-tagged human TLR4 (hTOLL) in pcDNA3 was a gift from C. Janeway and R. Medzhitov (Yale University, New Haven, CT) and was co-transfected with human MD-2 (0.25 μg DNA/transfection of TLR4 and MD-2), a gift from K. Miyake (University of Tokyo, Japan), FLAG-tagged TLR7 was cloned from genomic DNA into pFLAG-CMV1 and FLAG-tagged TLR9 was a gift from S. Akira (Osaka University, Japan). 24 h after transfection, cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline and stimulated with IL-1β (100 ng/ml) (Genzyme Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, MA), HKLM (105bacteria/ml), poly(IC) (100 μg/ml) (Amersham Biosciences), repurified LPS (100 ng/ml), phosphothioate-stabilized CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (10 μm, 2006–TCGTCGTTTTGTCGTTTTGTCGTT, gift from K. Heeg, Institute for Microbiology, Marburg, Germany) or schistosomal adult worm or egg PS fraction (10 μg/ml). Six hours after stimulation, cells were lysed in reporter lysis buffer (Promega, Madison, WI), and luciferase activity of the cellular lysate was measured using an assay kit from Promega (Madison, WI) per the manufacturer's protocol. HEK 293-CD14 and HEK 293-CD14/TLR2 cell lines were maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% FCS, 10 μg/ml ciprofloxacin, and 5 μg/ml puromycin. For stimulation experiments, cells were seeded at 0.2 × 106 cells/well in 96-well flat-bottom plates and were stimulated the next day with PS fractions from schistosomes or hamster liver (5 μg/ml). IL-8 production was measured in supernatants after 20 h using a commercial kit (CLB) following the manufacturer's recommendations. The schistosomal PS preparations were separated by HPLC using a 5-μm Lichrosphere diol normal-phase column (Merck). Elution was performed at a flow rate of 1 ml/min by a gradient from 95% eluent A (hexane/isopropanol/acetone (82:17:1)) and 5% eluent B (isopropanol/water/acetone (85:14:1)) to 60% A and 40% B in 30 min, followed by additional elution with the latter solvent for 10 min. Fractions were collected manually, evaporated to dryness, and used to stimulate HEK-CD14/TLR2 cells. Both the total PS preparations and the TLR2-activating HPLC fraction were analyzed using mass spectrometry. Mass spectrometry was performed on an API-365 triple quad mass spectrometer (Applied Biosystems, Nieuwerkerk aan de IJssel, The Netherlands) equipped with an electrospray ionization source. Negative ionization spectra were recorded at a scan rate of 200 atomic mass units (amu) per second, using an ion spray voltage of −4500 V, a declustering potential (cone voltage) of 30 V, and a focusing potential of 210 V. Alternatively, PS and lyso-PS were analyzed by recording neutral loss spectra of 87 amu in the negative ionization mode at ion spray-, decluster-, and focusing potentials mentioned above and with a collision energy of 34 V (r). Nitrogen was used as collision- and curtain gas and air as the nebulizing gas. For digestion with phospholipase C, 100 μg of the schistosomal adult worm PS fraction was incubated in 2 ml of diethyl ether and 1 ml of Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.2) supplemented with 5 mmCaCl2 and 1.3 units/ml phospholipase C (Sigma) during 3 h while shaking. As a control, schistosomal PS was incubated in the same buffer in the absence of phospholipase C. After hydrolysis, the ether was evaporated and lipids were extracted according to Bligh and Dyer (23Bligh E.G. Dyer W.J. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology. 1959; 37: 911-917Google Scholar). Data were analyzed for statistical significance using a paired t test. To study whether lipids from helminths are involved in interaction with the immune system, lipid classes derived from S. mansoni eggs and adult worms were fractionated on an anion exchange column and were screened for activity by their capacity to stimulate cytokine production (IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, or tumor necrosis factor α) by peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated from non-exposed individuals. We found that the lipid fraction containing PS was an inducer of cytokine production (data not shown), and we proceeded to investigate its effects on dendritic cells and subsequent T cell polarization. So-called dendritic cells type-1 (DC1) have previously been shown to induce development of Th1 cells, whereas DC2 cells have been found to promote Th2 development (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar). Human monocyte-derived dendritic cells were exposed to schistosomal PS, schistosomal SEA, a parasite antigen preparation that has previously been shown to induce DC2 development (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar), and as controls, IFN-γ (which induces the development of DC1) or PGE2 (which stimulates the development of DC2) in combination with neutral maturation factors (MF). After several washing steps, the fully matured dendritic cells were tested for cytokine production and used to prime naive T cells. We found that as reported before (6de Jong E.C. Vieira P.L. Kalinski P. Schuitemaker J.H. Tanaka Y. Wierenga E.A. Yazdanbakhsh M. Kapsenberg M.L. J. Immunol. 2002; 168: 1704-1709Google Scholar), upon stimulation with CD40-ligand (a molecule expressed on T cells that activates dendritic cells), the IFN-γ exposed dendritic cells produced high levels of IL-12p70 (IFN-γ-dendritic cells, 6.2 ± 0.4 ng/ml) compared with mature control dendritic cells (2.1 ± 0.3 ng/ml) and enhanced the development of Th1 cells (Fig1A), whereas PGE2- and SEA-exposed dendritic cells had suppressed IL-12p70 production (PGE2-dendritic cells, 0.3 ± 0.2 ng/ml and SEA-dendritic cells, 0.3 ± 0.1 ng/ml) and increased frequency of IL-4 producing T cells (Th2 cells) with decreasing numbers of IFN-γ producing T cells (Fig 1A). The schistosome fraction containing PS extracted from adult worms or eggs polarized the maturation of dendritic cells, resulting in low IL-12p70 release (PS eggs-dendritic cells, 0.4 ± 0.2 ng/ml, PS worms-dendritic cells, 0.4 ± 0.1 ng/ml) and not only in Th2 skewing (Fig 1A) but in contrast to SEA and PGE2, also in the development of IL-10 producing T cells (Fig1B). T cells that develop in co-culture with dendritic cells, which were matured in the presence of schistosomal PS, are capable of suppressing proliferation of autologous Th cells significantly at a Treg:Ttarget cell ratio of 1:1 (Fig 1C). Inhibition of proliferation was reduced to 50% at a Treg:Ttarget cell ratio of 1:2, and no inhibition was detectable at a 1:4 ratio. The observed suppression of proliferation was abrogated when a blocking IL-10 antibody was present in the co-culture of regulatory T cells (Treg) and target T cells (Fig. 1D), suggesting that the Treg cells exert their inhibitory function via IL-10. The low IL-12p70 production was not caused by PS toxicity, because production of another cytokine (IL-8) by dendritic cells was unaffected or even enhanced and also no apoptotic cells were detected as determined using the method described by Nicoletti et al.(31Nicoletti I. Migliorati G. Pagliacci M.C. Grignani F. Riccardi C. J. Immunol. Methods. 1991; 139: 271-279Google Scholar) (data not shown). Taken together, the maturation of dendritic cells in the presence of schistosome egg- or adult worm-PS leads to the development of dendritic cells capable of inducing Tregcells. This is specific for schistosomal PS, as dendritic cells matured in the presence of SEA or PGE2 (which polarize toward Th2) lacked the capacity to stimulate the development of the IL-10-producing Treg cells. The mechanism whereby dendritic cells matured in the presence of schistosomal PS induce IL-10-producing T cells is currently being investigated. Preliminary experiments show that whereas dendritic cell-derived soluble factors present in supernatants mediate Th2 development, cell-cell contact is required for Tregcell induction. We transiently transfected HEK 293 cells with human TLR1, TLR2, TLR3, TLR4+MD2, TLR7, and TLR9 to elucidate the mechanism by which schistosomal PS interacts with cells of the innate immune system. On stimulation with schistosomal PS, only cells transfected with TLR2 were activated (Fig. 2A). These results were confirmed by using peritoneal macrophages of TLR2 −/− mice, which were unresponsive to schistosomal PS, whereas macrophages of the control mice showed a clear response (Fig. 2B). When an anti-TLR2 antibody was added during dendritic cell maturation in the presence of schistosomal PS, the development of IL-10-producing T cells was diminished (Fig 3A) whereas Th2 polarization was not affected (Fig. 3B), indicating that TLR2 plays a role in specifically promoting the development of regulatory T cells, but not Th2 cells.Figure 3TLR2 activation on dendritic cells is essential for the development of IL-10 producing T cells.Dendritic cells were matured with MF alone (−) or with MF and PS worms (10 μg/ml) in the presence of a TLR2 blocking antibody or a control antibody. After maturation, dendritic cells were co-cultured with naive T cells, which after 12 days were restimulated with immobilized CD3 and soluble CD28 (A) to measure IL-10 in 24-h supernatants (results of 3 independent experiments are shown as mean ± S.D., **, p < 0.01) or PMA and ionomycin in the presence of brefeldin A (B) and examined for intracellular IL-4 and IFN-γ (one representative of 3 independent experiments is shown).View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload (PPT) To confirm that the active molecule present in the schistosomal PS fractions is indeed a phospholipid and not a minor compound not detectable by mass spectrometry, the schistosomal PS fraction was treated with phospholipase C, which removes the phosphoserine head group from the acylglycerol moiety, and subsequently HEK CD14/TLR2 stably transfected cells were stimulated with the resulting lipid fraction. On phospholipase C digestion, the TLR2-stimulating activity was significantly reduced (Fig. 4A), indicating that the phosphoserine head group is required for TLR2 activation. Phosphoserine alone did not have any TLR2-stimulating activity on HEK CD14/TLR2 cells (Fig. 4B), demonstrating that both the acyl group and the phosphoserine moieties of PS form a combined epitope for activity. In addition, HEK 293 cells stably transfected with TLR2 responded to schistosomal PS in a dose-dependent manner, but did not respond to any concentration of PS isolated from the liver of a non-infected mammalian host (a golden hamster) (Fig. 4B). In agreement with the observation that mammalian PS did not activate TLR2, it also did not affect dendritic cell maturation (data not shown). To identify the structure of the TLR2-activating molecule within the schistosomal PS preparations, we analyzed the contents of the PS preparations extracted from schistosome adult worms and eggs and hamster liver using HPLC and tandem mass spectrometry (Fig. 4,C, D and E, respectively). The PS-containing fractions comprised a variety of molecules, but they all showed the typical loss of a serine head group (with a mass of 87 Da) and showed a great variety in the number of C atoms and presence of double bonds in the acyl chains. Strikingly, both in the schistosomal worm and egg PS fractions, PS molecules containing only one acyl chain (so-called lyso-PS molecules) were found, whereas such molecules could not be detected in the hamster liver PS ex