Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) stimulates proliferation, regulates tissue development, protects against apoptosis, and promotes the malignant phenotype in the breast and other organs. Some epidemiological studies have linked high circulating levels of IGF-1 with an increased risk of breast cancer. To study the role of IGF-1 in mammary tumorigenesis in vivo, we used transgenic mice in which overexpression of IGF-1 is under the control of the bovine keratin 5 (BK5) promoter and is directed to either the myoepithelial or basal cells in a variety of organs, including the mammary gland. This model closely recapitulates the paracrine exposure of breast epithelium to stromal IGF-1 seen in women. Histologically, mammary glands from transgenic mice were hyperplastic and highly vascularized. Mammary glands from prepubertal transgenic mice had significantly increased ductal proliferation compared with wild-type tissues, although this difference was not maintained after puberty. Transgenic mice also had increased susceptibility to mammary carcinogenesis, and 74% of the BK5.IGF-1 mice treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (20 μg/day) developed mammary tumors compared with 29% of the wild-type mice. Interestingly, 31% of the vehicle-treated BK5.IGF-1 animals, but none of the wild-type animals, spontaneously developed mammary cancer. The mammary tumors were moderately differentiated adenocarcinomas that expressed functional, nuclear estrogen receptor at both the protein and mRNA levels. These data support the hypothesis that tissue overexpression of IGF-1 stimulates mammary tumorigenesis. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) stimulates proliferation, regulates tissue development, protects against apoptosis, and promotes the malignant phenotype in the breast and other organs. Some epidemiological studies have linked high circulating levels of IGF-1 with an increased risk of breast cancer. To study the role of IGF-1 in mammary tumorigenesis in vivo, we used transgenic mice in which overexpression of IGF-1 is under the control of the bovine keratin 5 (BK5) promoter and is directed to either the myoepithelial or basal cells in a variety of organs, including the mammary gland. This model closely recapitulates the paracrine exposure of breast epithelium to stromal IGF-1 seen in women. Histologically, mammary glands from transgenic mice were hyperplastic and highly vascularized. Mammary glands from prepubertal transgenic mice had significantly increased ductal proliferation compared with wild-type tissues, although this difference was not maintained after puberty. Transgenic mice also had increased susceptibility to mammary carcinogenesis, and 74% of the BK5.IGF-1 mice treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (20 μg/day) developed mammary tumors compared with 29% of the wild-type mice. Interestingly, 31% of the vehicle-treated BK5.IGF-1 animals, but none of the wild-type animals, spontaneously developed mammary cancer. The mammary tumors were moderately differentiated adenocarcinomas that expressed functional, nuclear estrogen receptor at both the protein and mRNA levels. These data support the hypothesis that tissue overexpression of IGF-1 stimulates mammary tumorigenesis. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) is a single-chain 7-kd polypeptide that plays a critical role in development and stimulates growth and organogenesis via mitogenic, antiapoptotic, and chemotactic activity.1Surmacz E Function of the IGF-I receptor in breast cancer.J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2000; 5: 95-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (213) Google Scholar, 2Yu H Rohan T Role of the insulin-like growth factor family in cancer development and progression.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000; 92: 1472-1489Crossref PubMed Scopus (1224) Google Scholar, 3Stewart AJ Johnson MD May FE Westley BR Role of insulin-like growth factors and the type I insulin-like growth factor receptor in the estrogen-stimulated proliferation of human breast cancer cells.J Biol Chem. 1990; 265: 21172-21178Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar IGF-1 is a primary mediator of the actions of growth hormone on postnatal growth and regulates fetal development of many tissues, including bone and reproductive organs.4Laron Z Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1): a growth hormone.Mol Pathol. 2001; 54: 311-316Crossref PubMed Scopus (338) Google Scholar, 5Silberstein GB Postnatal mammary gland morphogenesis.Microsc Res Tech. 2001; 52: 155-162Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar, 6Wood TL Richert MM Stull MA Allar MA The insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and IGF binding proteins in postnatal development of murine mammary glands.J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2000; 5: 31-42Crossref PubMed Scopus (71) Google Scholar In the mammary gland, IGF-1 stimulates terminal end bud formation and ductal elongation.7Kleinberg DL Feldman M Ruan W IGF-I: An essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis.J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2000; 5: 7-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar, 8Yee D Paik S Lebovic GS Marcus RR Favoni RE Cullen KJ Lippman ME Rosen N Analysis of insulin-like growth factor I gene expression in malignancy: evidence for a paracrine role in human breast cancer.Mol Endocrinol. 1989; 3: 509-517Crossref PubMed Scopus (393) Google ScholarHigh serum levels of IGF-1 are associated with an increased risk of breast, prostate, and colon cancer.9Pollak M Insulin-like growth factor physiology and cancer risk.Eur J Cancer. 2000; 36: 1224-1228Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar, 10Vadgama JV Wu Y Datta G Khan H Chillar R Plasma insulin-like growth factor-I and serum IGF-binding protein 3 can be associated with the progression of breast cancer, and predict the risk of recurrence and the probability of survival in African-American and Hispanic women.Oncology. 1999; 57: 330-340Crossref PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar, 11Yu H Jin F Shu XO Li BD Dai Q Cheng JR Berkel HJ Zheng W Insulin-like growth factors and breast cancer risk in Chinese women.Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2002; 11: 705-712PubMed Google Scholar, 12Hankinson SE Willett WC Colditz GA Hunter DJ Michaud DS Deroo B Rosner B Speizer FE Pollak M Circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I and risk of breast cancer.Lancet. 1998; 351: 1393-1396Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1585) Google Scholar Circulating IGF-1 and most of the IGF binding proteins are produced in the liver, through stimulation by growth hormone.13Rosen CJ Pollak M Circulating IGF-I: New Perspectives for a New Century.Trends Endocrinol Metab. 1999; 10: 136-141Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (131) Google Scholar Circulating IGF-1 levels vary throughout life, increasing from birth to a pubertal peak and decreasing steadily after age 30.14Brabant G Wallaschofski H Normal levels of serum IGF-I: Determinants and validity of current reference ranges.Pituitary. 2007; 10: 129-133Crossref PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar High circulating IGF-1 levels have been found in a number of epidemiological studies to be associated with increased risk of premenopausal breast cancer,15Renehan AG Harvie M Howell A Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I. IGF binding protein-3, and breast cancer risk: eight years on.Endocrine-Related Cancer. 2006; 13: 273-278Crossref PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar while other studies have found an association with breast cancer risk only in older women16Baglietto L English DR Hopper JL Morris HA Tilley WD Giles GG Circulating insulin-like growth factor-I and binding protein-3 and the risk of breast cancer.Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007; 16: 763-768Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar or no association at all.17Schernhammer ES Holly JM Hunter DJ Pollak MN Hankinson SE Insulin-like growth factor-I, its binding proteins (IGFBP-1 and IGFBP-3), and growth hormone and breast cancer risk in The Nurses Health Study II.Endocrine-Related Cancer. 2006; 13: 583-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (121) Google Scholar These discrepancies may be due to differences in study designs, assays used to determine IGF-1 levels, and the large variations in “normal” IGF-1 serum levels.15Renehan AG Harvie M Howell A Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I. IGF binding protein-3, and breast cancer risk: eight years on.Endocrine-Related Cancer. 2006; 13: 273-278Crossref PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar The expression of high levels of the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) in breast cancers is strongly associated with breast cancer recurrence and decreased survival.18Dunn SE Torres JV Nihei N Barrett JC The insulin-like growth factor-1 elevates urokinase-type plasminogen activator-1 in human breast cancer cells: a new avenue for breast cancer therapy.Mol Carcinog. 2000; 27: 10-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google ScholarIn addition to circulating levels of IGF-1, local expression of IGF-1, which is associated with increased angiogenesis in colorectal cancers,19Bustin SA Dorudi S Phillips SM Feakins RM Jenkins PJ Local expression of insulin-like growth factor-I affects angiogenesis in colorectal cancer.Tumour Biol. 2002; 23: 130-138Crossref PubMed Scopus (37) Google Scholar may also be important in breast cancer development. In the breast, IGF-1 has been shown by in situ hybridization to be produced predominantly by stromal cells and very rarely by normal or malignant breast epithelia.8Yee D Paik S Lebovic GS Marcus RR Favoni RE Cullen KJ Lippman ME Rosen N Analysis of insulin-like growth factor I gene expression in malignancy: evidence for a paracrine role in human breast cancer.Mol Endocrinol. 1989; 3: 509-517Crossref PubMed Scopus (393) Google Scholar, 20Marshman E Streuli CH Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in mammary gland function.Breast Cancer Res. 2002; 4: 231-239Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar, 21Sachdev D Yee D The IGF system and breast cancer.Endocrine-Related Cancer. 2001; 8: 197-209Crossref PubMed Scopus (285) Google Scholar On the other hand, IGF-1R is expressed by normal and malignant mammary epithelium, indicating that the effects of IGF-1 are achieved through a paracrine mechanism.20Marshman E Streuli CH Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in mammary gland function.Breast Cancer Res. 2002; 4: 231-239Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar, 21Sachdev D Yee D The IGF system and breast cancer.Endocrine-Related Cancer. 2001; 8: 197-209Crossref PubMed Scopus (285) Google Scholar Growth hormone, through interaction with its receptor on mammary stromal cells, induces IGF-1 production, which in turn activates IGF-1R, expressed by the ductal epithelium.20Marshman E Streuli CH Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in mammary gland function.Breast Cancer Res. 2002; 4: 231-239Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar IGF-1 mRNA has also been shown to be expressed in the epithelium of terminal end buds, but only in nonproliferating cells, during pubertal ductal development.20Marshman E Streuli CH Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in mammary gland function.Breast Cancer Res. 2002; 4: 231-239Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar Thus, whether expressed in the stroma or the terminal end buds, IGF-1 functions as a paracrine growth stimulator of adjacent mammary epithelial cells.20Marshman E Streuli CH Insulin-like growth factors and insulin-like growth factor binding proteins in mammary gland function.Breast Cancer Res. 2002; 4: 231-239Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google ScholarTransgenic and knockout mouse models have become valuable experimental systems to study the role of IGF-1 in the regulation of mammary gland development, lactation, and tumorigenesis. A number of transgenic models use the whey acidic protein and the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) promoters. Both of these promoters are hormonally regulated and generate increased transgene expression during pregnancy and lactation.22Vargo-Gogola T Rosen JM Modelling breast cancer: one size does not fit all.Nature Rev Cancer. 2007; 7: 659-672Crossref PubMed Scopus (476) Google Scholar Transgenic overexpression of human IGF-1 or des(1-3)IGF-1 (a potent IGF-1 analog with reduced affinity for IGF binding proteins) in the mammary glands, under the control of the whey acidic protein promoter, produces high levels of circulating growth factor.23Hadsell DL Greenberg NM Fligger JM Baumrucker CR Rosen JM Targeted expression of des(1-3) human insulin-like growth factor I in transgenic mice influences mammary gland development and IGF-binding protein expression.Endocrinology. 1996; 137: 321-330Crossref PubMed Scopus (147) Google Scholar, 24Hadsell DL Murphy KL Bonnette SG Reece N Laucirica R Rosen JM Cooperative interaction between mutant p53 and des(1-3)IGF-I accelerates mammary tumorigenesis.Oncogene. 2000; 19: 889-898Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar In these models, high levels of transgenic IGF-1 inhibit postlactation involution of the mammary gland predominantly through an antiapoptotic mechanism. In addition, whey acidic protein-des(1–3)IGF-1 overexpression leads to spontaneous mammary tumor formation in 53% of transgenic females by 23 months of age.24Hadsell DL Murphy KL Bonnette SG Reece N Laucirica R Rosen JM Cooperative interaction between mutant p53 and des(1-3)IGF-I accelerates mammary tumorigenesis.Oncogene. 2000; 19: 889-898Crossref PubMed Scopus (84) Google Scholar In a model using the MMTV promoter, overexpression of ovine prepro-IGF-1 stimulates inappropriate alveolar bud development in peripubertal, virgin mice.25Weber MS Boyle PL Corl BA Wong EA Gwazdauskas FC Akers RM Expression of ovine insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) stimulates alveolar bud development in mammary glands of transgenic mice.Endocrine. 1998; 8: 251-259Crossref PubMed Scopus (39) Google Scholar Conversely, in female mice deficient in IGF-1, mammary development is grossly impaired.7Kleinberg DL Feldman M Ruan W IGF-I: An essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis.J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2000; 5: 7-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar Treatment of deficient mice with IGF-1 plus estradiol (E2) restores pubertal mammary development, while treatment with growth hormone plus E2 does not, indicating that IGF-1 is necessary for the normal embryonic and postnatal development of the mammary gland.7Kleinberg DL Feldman M Ruan W IGF-I: An essential factor in terminal end bud formation and ductal morphogenesis.J Mammary Gland Biol Neoplasia. 2000; 5: 7-17Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google ScholarTo clarify the role of tissue overexpression of IGF-1 in mammary development and tumorigenesis, we used a transgenic animal in which IGF-1 is under the control of the bovine keratin 5 (BK5) promoter.26DiGiovanni J Kiguchi K Frijhoff A Wilker E Bol DK Beltrán L Moats S Ramirez A Jorcano JL Conti C Deregulated expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 in prostate epithelium leads to neoplasia in transgenic mice.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 3455-3460Crossref PubMed Scopus (241) Google Scholar, 27DiGiovanni J Bol DK Wilker E Beltrán L Carbajal S Moats S Ramirez A Jorcano J Kiguchi K Constitutive expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 in epidermal basal cells of transgenic mice leads to spontaneous tumor promotion.Cancer Res. 2000; 60: 1561-1570PubMed Google Scholar The BK5 promoter has been well characterized in multiple transgenic models and has been shown to direct constitutive transgene expression to the basal layer of stratified epithelia, where endogenous K5 is normally expressed.27DiGiovanni J Bol DK Wilker E Beltrán L Carbajal S Moats S Ramirez A Jorcano J Kiguchi K Constitutive expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 in epidermal basal cells of transgenic mice leads to spontaneous tumor promotion.Cancer Res. 2000; 60: 1561-1570PubMed Google Scholar, 28Ramírez A Bravo A Jorcano JL Vidal M Sequences 5′ of the bovine keratin 5 gene direct tissue- and cell-type-specific expression of a lacZ gene in the adult and during development.Differentiation. 1994; 58: 53-64PubMed Google Scholar, 29Segrelles C Lu J Hammann B Santos M Moral M Cascallana JL Lara MF Rho O Carbajal S Traag J Beltrán L Martínez-Cruz AB García-Escudero R Lorz C Ruiz S Bravo A Paramio JM DiGiovanni J Deregulated activity of Akt in epithelial basal cells induces spontaneous tumors and heightened sensitivity to skin carcinogenesis.Cancer Res. 2007; 67: 10879-10888Crossref PubMed Scopus (81) Google Scholar In the mammary gland, BK5-driven transgenes are expressed in the K5-positive myoepithelial cells,30Müller-Decker K Berger I Ackermann K Ehemann V Zoubova S Aulmann S Pyerin W Fürstenberger G Cystic duct dilatations and proliferative epithelial lesions in mouse mammary glands upon keratin 5 promoter-driven overexpression of cyclooxygenase-2.Am J Pathol. 2005; 166: 575-584Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (33) Google Scholar which are specialized cells adjacent to the ductal epithelium. Expression of IGF-1 by the myoepithelial cells in this model exposes the mammary epithelium in a paracrine/juxtacrine manner that recapitulates, to a greater extent than previous models, the contribution of stromal IGF-1 to breast development and tumorigenesis in a hormonally relevant in vivo milieu.Materials and MethodsAnimals and TreatmentsThe BK5.IGF-1 transgenic mice26DiGiovanni J Kiguchi K Frijhoff A Wilker E Bol DK Beltrán L Moats S Ramirez A Jorcano JL Conti C Deregulated expression of insulin-like growth factor 1 in prostate epithelium leads to neoplasia in transgenic mice.Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2000; 97: 3455-3460Crossref PubMed Scopus (241) Google Scholar, 27DiGiovanni J Bol DK Wilker E Beltrán L Carbajal S Moats S Ramirez A Jorcano J Kiguchi K Constitutive expression of insulin-like growth factor-1 in epidermal basal cells of transgenic mice leads to spontaneous tumor promotion.Cancer Res. 2000; 60: 1561-1570PubMed Google Scholar were maintained on an outbred ICR background, and all transgenics were hemizygous for the transgene. Age-matched, nontransgenic littermates were used as wild-type controls for all experiments. Animals were fed ad libitum with AIN-76A, a defined high sugar, fat, and protein food formula.31Bieri JG AIN-76 diet.J Nutr. 1979; 109: 925-926PubMed Google Scholar At 6 weeks of age, virgin BK5.IGF-1 and wild-type female control mice were segregated into three dosing groups (initially starting with ∼50 mice per group): 1) 20 μg/mouse/day 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) (the lowest known efficacious dose),32Qing WG Conti CJ LaBate M Johnston D Slaga TJ MacLeod MC Induction of mammary cancer and lymphoma by multiple, low oral doses of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in SENCAR mice.Carcinogenesis. 1997; 18: 553-559Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar 2) 10 μg/mouse/day DMBA (subefficacious dose) and 3) vehicle alone (corn oil). Starting at 7 to 9 weeks of age, mice were treated with DMBA or vehicle via oral gavage, 5 days per week, for 6 weeks.32Qing WG Conti CJ LaBate M Johnston D Slaga TJ MacLeod MC Induction of mammary cancer and lymphoma by multiple, low oral doses of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene in SENCAR mice.Carcinogenesis. 1997; 18: 553-559Crossref PubMed Scopus (35) Google Scholar Animals were checked daily for general health condition and palpated for tumors three times per week. Following detection by palpation, mammary tumors were measured and harvested for later analysis. Mice were sacrificed by CO2 asphyxiation when they reached 14 months of age or when tumor size reached 1.5 cm as specified in institutional animal care and use committee-approved protocols.Whole MountsMammary glands were harvested and pressed between glass plates and fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin for at least 1 week. Then, glands were dehydrated using a series of ethanol solutions (70%, 95%, and 100%) for 1 hour each and cleared in xylene for 2 hours. Following rehydration, tissue was immersed in fresh toluidine blue (1% aqueous) and stored in fresh phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) until photographs were taken.Histological AnalysisFor histological analysis, whole mammary glands and tumors were fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin before sectioning. Sections of 5 μm were cut, deparaffinized, rehydrated, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The Cardiff/Annapolis classification system was used to guide evaluation of histological phenotypes.33Cardiff RD Anver MR Gusterson BA Hennighausen L Jensen RA Merino MJ Rehm S Russo J Tavassoli FA Wakefield LM Ward JM Green JE The mammary pathology of genetically engineered mice: the consensus report and recommendations from the Annapolis meeting.Oncogene. 2000; 19: 968-988Crossref PubMed Scopus (407) Google Scholar To evaluate proliferation, selected mice received an intraperitoneal injection of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) in PBS (100 mg/kg body weight) 2 hours before sacrifice. BrdU was immunolocalized in paraffin embedded sections, as described previously.34Eldridge SR Tilbury LF Goldsworthy TL Butterworth BE Measurement of chemically induced cell proliferation in rodent liver and kidney: a comparison of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine and [3H]thymidine administered by injection or osmotic pump.Carcinogenesis. 1990; 11: 2245-2251Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar For determination of apoptosis, neutral buffered formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections were stained with the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling assay (ApoTag, Intergen, Purchase, NY) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The number of BrdU-positive or terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling-positive cells, as well as the total number of cells, were counted in 5 high-power fields of each slide of two different mammary glands (inguinal and thoracic)/mouse in groups of three or four mice of each genotype and age. To identify mast cells within the mammary tissue, sections were stained with 0.1% toluidine blue for 10 minutes, rinsed in water, and dehydrated.ImmunohistochemistryKeratin 5 (K5) and keratin 8 (K8) expression were examined in mammary buds from perinatal mice and tumors. Frozen sections (5 μm) of ventral skin were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 minutes and then rinsed in PBS. All incubations were performed at room temperature. Sections were blocked for 30 minutes in 15% donkey serum and then incubated for 30 minutes with antibodies to either K5 (1:500; 2 μg/ml; Berkeley Antibody Company, Richmond, CA) or K8 (1:10; TROMA-1, Developmental Studies Hybridoma Bank, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD). Following washing, the slides were then incubated with either fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled donkey anti-rabbit IgG (K5) or Cy5-labeled donkey anti-rat IgG (K8) (1:200; 2.5 μg/ml; Jackson Immunoresearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA), for 30 minutes, while being shielded from light. The slides were mounted with VECTASHIELD (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) medium, coverslipped, and viewed by confocal microscopy (Olympus Flowview confocal microscope).To assess expression of K5 and K8 in formalin-fixed mammary glands and tumors, slides were deparaffinized and rehydrated, and endogenous peroxidase was blocked with 3% H2O2 for 10 minutes. For antigen retrieval, slides were boiled in 10 mmol/L citrate buffer, pH 6, for 10 minutes in a microwave oven. All further manipulations were performed at room temperature. For K5 antibody staining, slides were blocked in 10% goat serum for 30 minutes and then incubated with anti-K5 (1:500; 2 μg/ml) for 1 hour. Then slides were washed and incubated with horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled anti-rabbit IgG (1:500; 3 μg/ml; Vector Laboratories) for 30 minutes, washed again and then incubated with 3,3′-diaminobenzidene (BioGenex, San Ramon, CA), followed by counterstaining and coverslipping. To immunolocalize K8, slides were blocked with 10% rabbit serum for 30 minutes and then incubated with anti-K8 (1:10) for 2 hours. Following washing, slides were incubated with biotinylated rabbit-anti-rat IgG (1:200; 2.5 μg/ml; Vector Laboratories) for 30 minutes and then incubated with streptavidin-HRP (BioGenex) for 30 minutes, followed by 3,3′-diaminobenzidene.To detect the human IGF-1 transgene in the mammary glands of BK5.IGF-1 transgenic mice, formalin-fixed sections were incubated in 10 mmol/L citrate buffer, pH 6, for 10 minutes as above, blocked with Biocare blocking reagent (Biocare Medical, Concord, CA), and incubated with 1:500 dilution of goat polyclonal anti-human IGF-1 antibody (0.5 μg/ml; Abcam, Cambridge, MA) at 4°C overnight. Sections were then incubated with Goat Probe followed by Goat Polymer-HRP (Biocare Medical) and color developed with 3,3′-diaminobenzidene (Dako, Carpinteria, CA).Phospho-Akt expression was determined in formalin-fixed sections of prepubertal mammary glands from wild-type and BK5.IGF-1 transgenic mice pretreated with 10 mmol/L citrate buffer. Slides were then incubated with rabbit polyclonal anti-phospho-Akt (Ser473) (1:50; 4 μg/ml; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) followed by HRP-linked anti-rabbit IgG (Dako) and 3,3′-diaminobenzidene.Estrogen receptor α (ER) protein expression was evaluated using the standard avidin-biotin-complex immunoperoxidase method with the VECTASTAIN Elite ABC kit (Vector Laboratories) in frozen sections fixed with Zamboni's (picrate paraformaldehyde) for 5 minutes. Following washing in PBS, the sections were quenched with 0.3% H2O2 in PBS/0.3% bovine serum albumin, blocked with 15% normal goat serum and then incubated with the primary antibody and HRP-labeled goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody (1:500; 3 μg/ml; Vector Laboratories). Two polyclonal ER antibodies were used; one obtained commercially from Zymed (South San Francisco, CA), the other a generous gift from Dr. Geoffrey Greene (ER-21).35Hess RA Gist DH Bunick D Lubahn DB Farrell A Bahr J Cooke PS Greene GL Estrogen receptor (α and β) expression in the excurrent ducts of the adult male rat reproductive tract.J Androl. 1997; 18: 602-611PubMed Google Scholar Dr. Greene's peptide antibody (ER-21) was used at 5 μg/ml final concentration, the Zymed antibody at a 1:300 dilution. Both yielded the same results. Sections were then incubated with the final ABC reagent, washed again, incubated with aqueous 3,3′-diaminobenzidene (20 μg/ml) for 1.0 to 1.5 minutes and counterstained with hematoxylin. Frozen sections of mouse uterus were used as positive ER tissue controls. Negative tissue controls were 1) female mouse kidney sections, 2) uterine slides incubated with ER-21 antibody that had been preabsorbed with the ER-21 peptide, or 3) uterine slides incubated with preimmune rabbit serum rather than the Zymed antibody.RNA Extraction and Reverse TranscriptionTumor tissues were homogenized with a Brinkmann Polytron bench-top homogenizer and RNA extracted with an Absolutely RNA Miniprep kit (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA) according to manufacturer's instructions. After homogenization, whole mammary preparations were centrifuged at 18,000 × g at 4°C for 30 minutes to let the fat separate before proceeding with the protocol. After spectrophotometric quantitation (A260/280), 5 μg of total RNA was reverse transcribed with M-MLV reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and random primers (Promega, Madison, WI). The resulting cDNA was diluted to 1 ng/μl working solution. A normal tissue standard was produced from whole mammary tissue from a young, untreated wild-type mouse and used as a calibrator for the relative standard curves. This normal tissue was extracted, reverse transcribed, diluted to 5, 1, and 0.2 ng/μl working solutions, and stored at −70°C in single-use aliquots.Real-Time Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (QPCR)Real-time QPCR was performed using the ABI Prizm 7700 sequence detection system (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). The primers and probes were designed with Primer Express software (Applied Biosystems) according to the manufacturer's instructions and cross-evaluated using the Oligo 4.0 program. The ER primers and probe used were: forward primer (5′-CCATGACCCTTCACACCAAAG-3′), reverse primer (5′-CCAGCTCGTTCCCTTGGAT-3′) and TaqMan probe (5′-FAM-CTCGGGAATGGCCTTGCTG1CAC-TAMRA-3′). The progesterone receptor primers and probe used were: forward primer (5′-TGCCAGTCCGCTTCTAAAGAG-3′), reverse primer (5′-AAAACCGTGAATCTTCCTTTGG-3′), and TaqMan probe (5′-FAM-ACCTCGAGCACTGGAAGGCACCG -TAMRA-3′). The cyclin D1 primers and probe used were: forward primer (5′-CCAGAGGCGGATGAGAACAA-3′), reverse primer (5′-GGCACAGAGGGCCACAAA-3′) and TaqMan probe (5′-FAM- CAGACCATCCGCAAGCATGCACAG-TAMRA-3′). TATA box binding protein was used as a reference gene. The TATA box binding protein primers and probe used were: forward primer (5′-GGTGGCAGCATGAAGTGACA-3′), reverse primer (5′-GCACAGAGCAAGCAACTCACA-3′), and TaqMan probe (5′-FAM-CCTCTGCACTGAAATCACCTGCAGCA-TAMRA-3′). Primers and probe for human IGF-1 were obtained from Applied Biosystems TaqMan gene expression assays. All assays, including target and reference genes, were run in duplicates on the same plate. The relative standard curve for ER was generated using the whole mammary gland from a young, untreated wild-type mouse and the curve for human IGF-1 from a whole mammary gland from a BK5.IGF-1 transgenic mouse. Three points, consisting of 25 ng, 5 ng, and 1 ng sample size per well, were added to the plate to generate a linear standard curve. The average Cτ (threshold cycle) of each sample was plotted against the log of nanograms of cDNA added to the wells of the standard curve, and the reverse log of that number was normalized to its corresponding TATA box binding protein value. The result is a unitless number that reflects the amount of target gene in different samples relative to the randomly chosen calib