INTRODUCTION Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are prevalent worldwide. Over 20 million gravid mothers developed GDM globally in 2019.[1] In Singapore, the prevalence of GDM ranges from 18.9% to 25.1%.[2] Mothers with GDM are at higher risk of developing T2DM after pregnancy, and their children are at six-fold higher risk of developing T2DM in childhood/adolescence.[3-5] International and local guidelines recommend that mothers perform the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) to identify dysglycaemia.[6,7] In Singapore, mothers are recommended to perform this OGTT at 6–12 weeks postpartum.[6] However, OGTT screening among postpartum mothers remains suboptimal in developed countries, ranging from 18.5% in a UK cohort,[8] 48%–56% in an Australian study[9] and 62.9% in a Singapore cohort.[10] An earlier qualitative study had identified multiple barriers and facilitators to postpartum OGTT screening.[11] Understanding and quantifying these barriers enable the design of targeted interventions to address the more prevalent barriers.[12] Identifying enablers is pivotal to escalate OGTT uptake by leveraging on them to develop person-centric solutions to overcome their barriers. This cross-sectional study primarily aimed to determine the prevalent barriers and facilitators associated with the uptake of postpartum OGTT. The secondary aim was to estimate the completion rate of postpartum OGTT in Singapore. METHODS A cross-sectional questionnaire survey in English was conducted from December 2020 to June 2021 on postpartum mothers at Punggol and Sengkang polyclinics. Multiethnic postpartum Asian mothers, either citizens or permanent residents of Singapore, with self-reported GDM and who had delivered in the preceding 6 months were recruited at the study sites. They were excluded if they were unable to understand and speak English and/or had pre-existing diabetes mellitus (DM). Based on an estimated postpartum screening uptake rate of 18.5% from a large-scale retrospective cohort study of almost 50,000 mothers with GDM,[13] a minimum sample size of 232 was required to achieve 95% confidence limits and 5% precision.[14] The recruitment spanned from December 2020 to June 2021. All potentially eligible participants were approached when they brought their child to the study site for childhood vaccination/developmental assessment. A self-administered 31-item questionnaire was used to collect information on demography, obstetric history, awareness of any personal friends/relatives with T2DM/GDM, knowledge and sources of information on GDM, postpartum T2DM screening status and reasons for carrying out (facilitators) or not executing (barriers) postpartum OGTT that was developed based on an earlier qualitative research study.[11] Face validity was performed by the authors who are family physicians, as well as by five other family physicians. The knowledge questions assessed the participants' understanding of maternal and foetal complications of GDM, prognosis of GDM, postpartum GDM follow-up and the importance of early detection of T2DM. Participants were asked to rate the various facilitators or barriers on a 3-point Likert scale to best explain their decision to attend or not schedule postpartum OGTT. Questionnaire responses were entered into R4.0.3 software. Bivariate analyses were conducted for demographic characteristics with postpartum T2DM screening attendance. Associations were analysed by chi-squared tests and Fisher's exact tests. Multivariable logistic regression was used to model association of postpartum testing completion, and factors with P value < 0.2 were considered for inclusion into the regression model. Independent variables were evaluated for collinearity by examining the variable inflation factor before inclusion into the model. RESULTS Of 2712 participants who were screened, 2399 did not have GDM and 275 were eligible for study enrolment. Of the 275 eligible participants, 35 (12.7%) declined participating in the study due to time constraints or lack of interest. The remaining 240 (87.3%) were enrolled in the study, and all completed the survey. The participants were aged between 22 and 45 years, with an ethnic composition similar to that of the national population. Among the participants, 45.8% (110/240) delivered their first child and 6.7% (16/240) required insulin during pregnancy; 54.6% (131/240) and 56.7% (136/240) knew of personal friends or relatives who had GDM and T2DM, respectively [Table 1].Table 1: Demographics of study participants (n=240).Over half (56.6%) of the participants cited medical staff as their main source of information on GDM, followed by sources like their family and friends (15.8%) and the internet (12.5%). Most of our participants correctly answered the knowledge questions in the survey. Also, 92.6% of women who had completed a postpartum OGTT correctly agreed that 'after childbirth, mothers with GDM need to repeat blood tests to check for diabetes', compared to 76.6% of women who had not (P = 0.001) [Table S1, Supplemental Digital Appendix at https://links.lww.com/SGMJ/A123]. Completion rates of postpartum OGTT In total, 176 (73.3%) mothers had completed their OGTT screening. Among the remaining 64 (26.7%) mothers who had not completed, 34 (53.1%) had planned for T2DM screening, while 30 (46.9%) had no plan to screen. No significant difference was noted in demographic information and medical or pregnancy history between those who did and did not complete OGTT after their most recent pregnancy, except for the type of delivery hospital where 85.9% of the women who had delivered in public hospitals had done OGTT compared to only 55.1% of women who had delivered in private hospitals (P < 0.001) [Table S1, Supplemental Digital Appendix at https://links.lww.com/SGMJ/A123]. After logistic regression analysis, delivery at public hospital was still significantly associated with higher likelihood of completion of postpartum OGTT (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 4.82, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.53–9.20, P < 0.001) [Table S2, Supplemental Digital Appendix at https://links.lww.com/SGMJ/A123]. Those who answered correctly on GDM mothers requiring repeat blood tests after childbirth were also more likely to complete OGTT after pregnancy (AOR 2.49, 95% CI 1.03–6.03, P = 0.042). Barriers and facilitators for the uptake of postpartum OGTT Among the 30 mothers who did not schedule for OGTT, 51.7% reported absence of scheduled diabetes screening as the main reason for not doing postpartum OGTT [Figure S1, Supplemental Digital Appendix at https://links.lww.com/SGMJ/A123] and 48.3% cited being unaware or uninformed by their doctors about the need for postpartum OGTT. In contrast, among those who had completed/scheduled postpartum OGTT (n=176 and n=34, respectively), 71.6% cited routine scheduling of T2DM screening as a main reason. They also perceived the following: 'it is better to know earlier than later about T2DM diagnosis' (70.1%), 'check if they could return to their normal lifestyle' (64.9%) and 'their risk of diabetes was high after having GDM' (63%) [Figure S1, Supplemental Digital Appendix at https://links.lww.com/SGMJ/A123]. DISCUSSION The study revealed that almost three-quarters (73.3%) of the participants had completed their postpartum OGTT, which is higher than the rate reported in 2002 by Tan et al.[10] The higher rates may be due to the health promotion efforts by primary care physicians and obstetricians from the public healthcare institutions, supported by national initiatives, adequate health literacy,[15] accessibility of information and online informal support groups. Delivering in public hospitals was found to be significantly associated with completion of postpartum follow-up in mothers with prior GDM. Possible factors for this difference could be that public hospitals routinely schedule OGTT appointments at 6–8 weeks postpartum, and there is easier postpartum continuity of care with more seamless patient information flow. Postpartum OGTT uptake rate[16,17] could be improved by simple interventions like routine scheduling of postpartum mothers with GDM. Participants who knew an OGTT should be repeated postpartum were more likely to complete it [Table 1]. Most participants cited medical staff as their primary source of information regarding GDM. Timely, opportunistic (e.g., at infant's vaccination, developmental assessment) messaging to highlight the importance of postpartum DM screening is another potential intervention.[18,19] Majority of the participants had foundational knowledge regarding GDM, and more than half of them knew someone previously diagnosed with GDM/T2DM. These participants had either completed their postpartum OGTT or already scheduled their appointment. Information sharing among peers/relatives may potentially lower the threshold for OGTT screening. Engaging 'expert patients' or advocates may also potentially promote OGTT screening. While telehealth services could allow mothers to connect with their healthcare providers virtually,[20] Arias et al.[21] reported no significant difference in postpartum OGTT completion despite the introduction of postpartum care to mothers by telehealth. Further studies are needed to determine the effect of a hybrid model (comprising in-person and video consultation) on postpartum OGTT screening uptake rate. Results from this cross-sectional study triangulate with the findings from a previous qualitative study.[11] The recruitment strategy also allowed for the inclusion mothers who delivered in both public and private settings. In addition, the demographic profiles of the study participants are comparable to those of Singapore's multiethnic women. The study has its limitations. As data were only collected from two primary care clinics, with a relatively higher proportion of study participants with university education, the results may not be generalisable to the entire local population. Recall bias among participants could not be entirely eliminated as the diagnosis of GDM could not be verified with all their medical records. Convenience sampling of the participants is another potential source of bias and study limitation, as patients who completed their postpartum OGTT at private hospitals would not have been captured. The uptake of postpartum DM screening was significantly increased when mothers with GDM were scheduled for their OGTT appointments after their delivery. More of these mothers completed or intended to undertake the screening when they delivered at public hospitals and were more aware of its relevance/importance from their peers and relatives. A coordinated multifaceted approach that includes standardising care processes, such as routine scheduling of postpartum OGTT appointment, health education and appropriate nudging by healthcare providers, is a catalyst to improve uptake of postpartum diabetes screening. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge Dr Daniel Lim, Dr Martyn Gostelow, Dr Benjy Soh, Dr Suat Yee Kwek and Dr Jana Lim for questionnaire design and study execution; Dr Cecilia Sharon Chong and Dr Ashley Wu for subject recruitment and data analysis; and Dr Caris Tan and Dr Patricia Kin, Department of Research, SingHealth Polyclinics, for their assistance in the Centralised Institutional Review Board (CIRB) review of the study protocol. Financial support and sponsorship The study is part of the Integrated Platform for Research in Advancing Metabolic Health Outcomes of Women and Children (IPRAMHO) between KK Women's and Children's Hospital, National Healthcare Group and SingHealth Polyclinics in Singapore. It is funded by the IPRAMHO Centre Grant Programme (Ref No.: NMRC/CGAug16C008) and supported by the National Medical Research Council of Singapore. Conflicts of interest There are no conflicts of interest.