Inflammation contributes to liver injury during cholestasis. The mechanism by which cholestasis initiates an inflammatory response in the liver, however, is not known. Two hypotheses were investigated in the present studies. First, activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), either by bacterial lipopolysaccharide or by damage-associated molecular pattern molecules released from dead hepatocytes, triggers an inflammatory response. Second, bile acids act as inflammagens, and directly activate signaling pathways in hepatocytes that stimulate production of proinflammatory mediators. Liver inflammation was not affected in lipopolysaccharide-resistant C3H/HeJ mice after bile duct ligation, indicating that Toll-like receptor 4 is not required for initiation of inflammation. Treatment of hepatocytes with bile acids did not directly cause cell toxicity but increased the expression of numerous proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and other proteins that influence immune cell levels and function. Up-regulation of several of these genes in hepatocytes and in the liver after bile duct ligation required early growth response factor-1, but not farnesoid X receptor. In addition, early growth response factor-1 was up-regulated in the livers of patients with cholestasis and correlated with levels of inflammatory mediators. These data demonstrate that Toll-like receptor 4 is not required for the initiation of acute inflammation during cholestasis. In contrast, bile acids directly activate a signaling network in hepatocytes that promotes hepatic inflammation during cholestasis. Inflammation contributes to liver injury during cholestasis. The mechanism by which cholestasis initiates an inflammatory response in the liver, however, is not known. Two hypotheses were investigated in the present studies. First, activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), either by bacterial lipopolysaccharide or by damage-associated molecular pattern molecules released from dead hepatocytes, triggers an inflammatory response. Second, bile acids act as inflammagens, and directly activate signaling pathways in hepatocytes that stimulate production of proinflammatory mediators. Liver inflammation was not affected in lipopolysaccharide-resistant C3H/HeJ mice after bile duct ligation, indicating that Toll-like receptor 4 is not required for initiation of inflammation. Treatment of hepatocytes with bile acids did not directly cause cell toxicity but increased the expression of numerous proinflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, and other proteins that influence immune cell levels and function. Up-regulation of several of these genes in hepatocytes and in the liver after bile duct ligation required early growth response factor-1, but not farnesoid X receptor. In addition, early growth response factor-1 was up-regulated in the livers of patients with cholestasis and correlated with levels of inflammatory mediators. These data demonstrate that Toll-like receptor 4 is not required for the initiation of acute inflammation during cholestasis. In contrast, bile acids directly activate a signaling network in hepatocytes that promotes hepatic inflammation during cholestasis. Cholestatic liver disease develops when bile flow from the liver is interrupted.1Li M.K. Crawford J.M. The pathology of cholestasis.Semin Liver Dis. 2004; 24: 21-42Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar, 2Qureshi W.A. 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Toxic bile salts induce rodent hepatocyte apoptosis via direct activation of Fas.J Clin Invest. 1999; 103: 137-145Crossref PubMed Scopus (465) Google Scholar, 10Reinehr R. Graf D. Haussinger D. Bile salt-induced hepatocyte apoptosis involves epidermal growth factor receptor-dependent CD95 tyrosine phosphorylation.Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 839-853Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar, 11Graf D. Kurz A.K. Fischer R. Reinehr R. Haussinger D. Taurolithocholic acid-3 sulfate induces CD95 trafficking and apoptosis in a c-Jun N-terminal kinase-dependent manner.Gastroenterology. 2002; 122: 1411-1427Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar In these studies, deoxycholic acid (DCA), lithocholic acid, and their metabolites are frequently used.11Graf D. Kurz A.K. Fischer R. Reinehr R. Haussinger D. Taurolithocholic acid-3 sulfate induces CD95 trafficking and apoptosis in a c-Jun N-terminal kinase-dependent manner.Gastroenterology. 2002; 122: 1411-1427Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar, 12Yang H. Li T.W. Ko K.S. Xia M. Lu S.C. Switch from Mnt-Max to Myc-Max induces p53 and cyclin D1 expression and apoptosis during cholestasis in mouse and human hepatocytes.Hepatology. 2009; 49: 860-870Crossref PubMed Scopus (42) Google Scholar, 13Rodrigues C.M. Fan G. Ma X. Kren B.T. Steer C.J. A novel role for ursodeoxycholic acid in inhibiting apoptosis by modulating mitochondrial membrane perturbation.J Clin Invest. 1998; 101: 2790-2799Crossref PubMed Scopus (463) Google Scholar One caveat of these studies, however, is that plasma and liver concentrations of secondary bile acids (eg, lithocholic acid and DCA) do not dramatically increase in humans with cholestasis or in animal models of cholestasis,14Marschall H.U. Wagner M. Bodin K. Zollner G. Fickert P. Gumhold J. Silbert D. Fuchsbichler A. Sjovall J. Trauner M. Fxr(−/−) mice adapt to biliary obstruction by enhanced phase I detoxification and renal elimination of bile acids.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 582-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar, 15Wagner M. Fickert P. Zollner G. Fuchsbichler A. Silbert D. Tsybrovskyy O. Zatloukal K. Guo G.L. Schuetz J.D. Gonzalez F.J. Marschall H.U. Denk H. Trauner M. Role of farnesoid X receptor in determining hepatic ABC transporter expression and liver injury in bile duct-ligated mice.Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 825-838Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar, 16Burkard I. von Eckardstein A. Rentsch K.M. Differentiated quantification of human bile acids in serum by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2005; 826: 147-159Crossref PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar because these bile acids are formed in the intestine from primary bile acids, and intestinal concentrations of primary bile acids decrease during cholestasis because of diminished biliary excretion.14Marschall H.U. Wagner M. Bodin K. Zollner G. Fickert P. Gumhold J. Silbert D. Fuchsbichler A. Sjovall J. Trauner M. Fxr(−/−) mice adapt to biliary obstruction by enhanced phase I detoxification and renal elimination of bile acids.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 582-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar, 15Wagner M. Fickert P. Zollner G. Fuchsbichler A. Silbert D. Tsybrovskyy O. Zatloukal K. Guo G.L. Schuetz J.D. Gonzalez F.J. Marschall H.U. Denk H. Trauner M. Role of farnesoid X receptor in determining hepatic ABC transporter expression and liver injury in bile duct-ligated mice.Gastroenterology. 2003; 125: 825-838Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (238) Google Scholar On the other hand, serum levels of the most abundant primary bile acids, such as cholic acid and muricholic acid, increase to 200–250 μmol/L in mice subjected to bile duct ligation (BDL) for 7 days.14Marschall H.U. Wagner M. Bodin K. Zollner G. Fickert P. Gumhold J. Silbert D. Fuchsbichler A. Sjovall J. Trauner M. Fxr(−/−) mice adapt to biliary obstruction by enhanced phase I detoxification and renal elimination of bile acids.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 582-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar In contrast to DCA and lithocholic acid, however, these bile acids are relatively nontoxic to hepatocytes in culture.17Sokol R.J. Winklhofer-Roob B.M. Devereaux M.W. McKim Jr, J.M. Generation of hydroperoxides in isolated rat hepatocytes and hepatic mitochondria exposed to hydrophobic bile acids.Gastroenterology. 1995; 109: 1249-1256Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar Accordingly, these data raise the question of whether direct bile acid toxicity can be entirely or even partially responsible for liver injury observed during obstructive cholestasis.18Copple B.L. Jaeschke H. Klaassen C.D. Oxidative stress and the pathogenesis of cholestasis.Semin Liver Dis. 2010; 30: 195-204Crossref PubMed Scopus (149) Google Scholar Recent studies suggest that inflammatory cells such as neutrophils are activated and recruited into the liver during obstructive cholestasis and cause significant liver injury in a murine model of bile duct ligation.5Gujral J.S. Farhood A. Bajt M.L. Jaeschke H. Neutrophils aggravate acute liver injury during obstructive cholestasis in bile duct-ligated mice.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 355-363Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar This inflammatory response correlated with substantial formation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and expression of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1).19Gujral J.S. Liu J. Farhood A. Hinson J.A. Jaeschke H. Functional importance of ICAM-1 in the mechanism of neutrophil-induced liver injury in bile duct-ligated mice.Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004; 286: G499-G507Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar Because liver injury in mice deficient in CD18 or ICAM-1 was almost eliminated, it was concluded that infiltrating neutrophils and not bile acids were responsible for hepatocellular injury.5Gujral J.S. Farhood A. Bajt M.L. Jaeschke H. Neutrophils aggravate acute liver injury during obstructive cholestasis in bile duct-ligated mice.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 355-363Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar, 19Gujral J.S. Liu J. Farhood A. Hinson J.A. Jaeschke H. Functional importance of ICAM-1 in the mechanism of neutrophil-induced liver injury in bile duct-ligated mice.Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2004; 286: G499-G507Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar In support of these findings from animal studies, serum levels of the neutrophil chemokine IL-8 are increased in patients with cholestatic liver disease.20Neuman M. Angulo P. Malkiewicz I. Jorgensen R. Shear N. Dickson E.R. Haber J. Katz G. Lindor K. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and transforming growth factor-beta reflect severity of liver damage in primary biliary cirrhosis.J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2002; 17: 196-202Crossref PubMed Scopus (124) Google Scholar, 21Yamashiki M. Kosaka Y. Nishimura A. Watanabe S. Nomoto M. Ichida F. Analysis of serum cytokine levels in primary biliary cirrhosis patients and healthy adults.J Clin Lab Anal. 1998; 12: 77-82Crossref PubMed Scopus (17) Google Scholar Furthermore, ICAM-1 is up-regulated and neutrophils are present in the livers of these patients.22Gulubova M.V. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) expression in the liver of patients with extrahepatic cholestasis.Acta Histochem. 1998; 100: 59-74Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Thus, both animal and human studies support the hypothesis that an inflammatory response during obstructive cholestasis plays a critical role in the injury process. What remains unclear is the molecular mechanism by which cholestasis initiates this inflammatory response in the liver. Two hypotheses were investigated in the present studies to explain this mechanism. First, activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), either by bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) released from the gut or by damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs) released from dead hepatocytes exposed to pathological concentrations of bile acids, triggers an inflammatory response. Second, bile acids act as inflammagens and directly activate signaling pathways in hepatocytes that regulate production of pro-inflammatory mediators that stimulate recruitment of neutrophils into the liver. A better understanding of the initiating events of the inflammatory response may point to clinically relevant therapeutic strategies against cholestatic liver injury and even fibrosis, without affecting the vital host defense functions of neutrophils. Mice used for these studies were male, ranging in age from 8 to 10 weeks: C57BL/6 (Harlan Laboratories, Indianapolis, IN), C57BL/6NTac (Taconic, Germantown, NY), early growth response factor-1 (Egr-1) knockout (B6.129-Egr1tm1Jmi N12; Taconic), C3H/HeJ (Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, ME), and C3Heb/FeJ (Jackson Laboratories). Farnesoid X receptor (FXR) knockout mice, described previously,23Sinal C.J. Tohkin M. Miyata M. Ward J.M. Lambert G. Gonzalez F.J. Targeted disruption of the nuclear receptor FXR/BAR impairs bile acid and lipid homeostasis.Cell. 2000; 102: 731-744Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1409) Google Scholar were provided by Dr. Grace Guo, Ph.D., University of Kansas Medical Center. All animals were maintained on a 12-hour light/dark cycle under controlled temperature (18–21°C) and humidity. Food (Teklad rodent chow; Harlan Laboratories, Madison, WI) and tap water were allowed ad libitum. All procedures on animals were conducted in accordance with the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals promulgated by the National Institutes of Health. Hepatocytes were isolated from the livers of mice by collagenase perfusion, as we have described previously.24Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Slitt A.L. Copple B.L. Early growth response factor-1 is critical for cholestatic liver injury.Toxicol Sci. 2006; 90: 586-595Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar The hepatocytes were cultured in Williams' medium E containing 10% fetal bovine serum and penicillin-streptomycin. Hepatocytes were treated with bile acids within 16 hours of plating. For caspase inhibition studies, cells were incubated with the pan-caspase inhibitor quinoline-val-asp-difluorophenoxymethylketone (MP Biomedicals, Santa Ana, CA), for 30 minutes before bile acid treatment. Mice were subjected to BDL as described previously.24Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Slitt A.L. Copple B.L. Early growth response factor-1 is critical for cholestatic liver injury.Toxicol Sci. 2006; 90: 586-595Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar Research involving human liver was reviewed by the University of Kansas Medical Center Human Research Protection Program. The specimens were provided by the KU Liver Center Tissue Bank. Diseased liver tissue used for these studies was collected from patients with primary biliary cirrhosis (4 females, ages 59, 56, 60, and 61 years; 1 male, age 47 years) or primary sclerosing cholangitis (3 males, ages 44, 45, and 57 years). Liver samples without histological evidence of cholestasis, fibrosis, or severe inflammation were selected as control tissues (5 females, ages 41, 48, 56, 52, and 66 years; 5 males, age 57, 45, 57, 58, and 48 years). Cells were plated and treated as described above. Cell death was evaluated by measuring the release of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) into the medium as an indicator of necrotic cell death, as described previously.25Copple B.L. Bustamante J.J. Welch T.P. Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Hypoxia-inducible factor-dependent production of profibrotic mediators by hypoxic hepatocytes.Liver Int. 2009; 29: 1010-1021Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar Cleavage of the Ac-DEVD-AMC substrate was measured to quantify caspase 3 activity. Briefly, cells were lysed with cell lysis buffer (50 mmol/L HEPES, pH 7.4; 100 mmol/L NaCl; 0.1% 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate; 0.1 mmol/L ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid; 1 mmol/L dithiothreitol). The lysate was centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 minutes at 4°C. The supernatant was collected and incubated with 200 μmol/L of Ac-DEVD-AMC substrate (BD Biosciences San Diego, CA) in assay buffer (50 mmol/L HEPES (pH 7.4); 100 mmol/L NaCl; 0.1% CHAPS; 0.1 mmol/L ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic acid; 10% glycerol; 10 mmol/L dithiothreitol). Cleavage of the Ac-DEVD-AMC substrate was measured kinetically by liberation of AMC using a Synergy 2 plate reader (BioTek, Winooski, VT) (380 nm excitation and 430–460 nm emission wavelengths). RNA was isolated using TRI reagent (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), and was reverse-transcribed into cDNA, as we have described previously.24Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Slitt A.L. Copple B.L. Early growth response factor-1 is critical for cholestatic liver injury.Toxicol Sci. 2006; 90: 586-595Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar Real-time PCR was performed on an ABI 7900 real-time PCR instrument (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) with the ABI SYBR Green DNA PCR kit. Sequences of primers are listed in Table 1. A customized TaqMan qPCR array (Applied Biosystems) was used to measure mRNA levels of the genes listed in Supplemental Table S1 (see http://www.ajp.amjpathol.org). PCR was performed according to the manufacturer's recommendations.Table 1Sequences of Real-Time PCR PrimersGeneForward primerReverse primerMouse Egr-15′-GGCAGAGGAAGACGATGAAG-3′5′-GACGAGTTATCCCAGCCAAA-3′MIP-25′-CTCAGACAGCGAGGCACATC-3′5′-CCTCAACGGAAGAACCAAAGAG-3′Mouse ICAM-15′-CGACGCCGCTCAGAAGAA-3′5′-GTCTCGGAAGGGAGCCAAGTA-3′Mouse 18S5′-TTGACGGAAGGGCACCACCAG-3′5′-GCACCACCACCCACGGAATCG-3′Mouse PAI-15′-AGTCTTTCCGACCAAGAGCA-3′5′-ATCACTTGCCCCATGAAGAG-3′VCAM-15′-TGGCTGTGACTCCCCTTCTTT-3′5′-AGAGCTCAACACAAGCGTGGA-3′Ccl75′-AAGATCCCCAAGAGGAATCTCA-3′5′-CAGACTTCCATGCCCTTCTTT-3′Human 18S5′-AACTTTCGATGGTCTCGCCG-3′5′-CCTTGGATGTGGTAGCGTTT-3′Human Egr-15′-TACTCCTCTGTTCCCCCTGCTT-3′5′-GAAAAGGTTGCTGTCATGTCCG-3′Human ICAM-15′-CGGCTGACGTGTGCAGTAATAC-3′5′-GGCTTCGTCAGAATCACGTTG-3′IL-85′-TCCTTGTTCCACTGTGCCTTG-3′5′-TGCTTCCACATGTCCTCACAA-3′Human PAI-15′-GTTCATTGCTGCCCCTTATGAA-3′5′-AGCCTGGTCATGTTGGCCTTTC-3′Snail5′-TTTTGCTGACCGCTCCAAC-3′5′-TGCTTGTGGAGCAAGGACAT-3′ Open table in a new tab Sections of frozen liver were incubated with rat anti-mouse vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) antibody diluted 1:50 (Millipore Bioscience Research Reagents, Temecula, CA). The sections were washed and incubated with goat anti-rat conjugated to Alexa 594 (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Hepatocytes were lysed in RIPA (radio-immunoprecipitation assay) buffer containing complete protease inhibitor cocktail and PhosSTOP phosphatase inhibitor (both from Roche Applied Science, Indianapolis, IN). Equal amounts of protein were separated on a 7.5% or 4.5%–15% gradient Criterion polyacrylamide gel (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA) and transferred to a polyvinylidene difluoride membrane (Immobilon-P; Millipore, Bedford, MA). The membrane was incubated with anti-ICAM-1 antibody (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN), anti-Egr-1 antibody (Cell Signaling Technology, Danvers, MA) or anti-β-actin antibody (Sigma-Aldrich), followed by incubation with the appropriate horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA). The bands were visualized using the Immun-Star HRP Substrate Kit (Bio-Rad). Macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) was measured in cell culture medium using the Bio-Plex assay (Bio-Rad), according to the manufacturer's instructions. ALT was measured in serum using a commercially available kit, as described previously.24Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Slitt A.L. Copple B.L. Early growth response factor-1 is critical for cholestatic liver injury.Toxicol Sci. 2006; 90: 586-595Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar Neutrophil accumulation and extravasation were quantified as described previously.5Gujral J.S. Farhood A. Bajt M.L. Jaeschke H. Neutrophils aggravate acute liver injury during obstructive cholestasis in bile duct-ligated mice.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 355-363Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar Results are presented as the mean ± SEM. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance or t-test. Analysis of variance was performed on logX-transformed data in instances in which variances were not homogeneous. Comparisons among group means were made using the Student-Newman-Keuls test. Spearman correlation was performed to identify correlations between Egr-1 mRNA levels and mRNA levels of other inflammatory mediators in human livers. The criterion for significance was P < 0.05 for all studies. To determine whether TLR4 is required for stimulation of inflammation in the liver during cholestasis, C3H/HeJ mice, which have an inactivating mutation in the TLR4 gene,26Poltorak A. He X. Smirnova I. Liu M.Y. Van Huffel C. Du X. Birdwell D. Alejos E. Silva M. Galanos C. Freudenberg M. Ricciardi-Castagnoli P. Layton B. Beutler B. Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene.Science. 1998; 282: 2085-2088Crossref PubMed Scopus (6421) Google Scholar and C3Heb/FeJ mice, TLR4 wild type, were subjected to BDL. Plasma ALT activity and % area of liver necrosis after BDL were unaffected in C3H/HeJ mice, consistent with previous studies (Figure 1).27Seki E. De Minicis S. Osterreicher C.H. Kluwe J. Osawa Y. Brenner D.A. Schwabe R.F. TLR4 enhances TGF-beta signaling and hepatic fibrosis.Nat Med. 2007; 13: 1324-1332Crossref PubMed Scopus (1484) Google Scholar Similarly, total numbers of neutrophils in the liver and numbers of extravasated neutrophils after BDL were unaffected in C3H/HeJ mice (Figure 1). These results suggest that LPS does not initiate inflammation through activation of TLR4 during cholestasis. Bile acids activate several signaling pathways in hepatocytes.28Qiao L. Studer E. Leach K. McKinstry R. Gupta S. Decker R. Kukreja R. Valerie K. Nagarkatti P. El Deiry W. Molkentin J. Schmidt-Ullrich R. Fisher P.B. Grant S. Hylemon P.B. Dent P. Deoxycholic acid (DCA) causes ligand-independent activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and FAS receptor in primary hepatocytes: inhibition of EGFR/mitogen-activated protein kinase-signaling module enhances DCA-induced apoptosis.Mol Biol Cell. 2001; 12: 2629-2645Crossref PubMed Scopus (204) Google Scholar, 29Dent P. Fang Y. Gupta S. Studer E. Mitchell C. Spiegel S. Hylemon P.B. Conjugated bile acids promote ERK1/2 and AKT activation via a pertussis toxin-sensitive mechanism in murine and human hepatocytes.Hepatology. 2005; 42: 1291-1299Crossref PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar, 30Allen K. Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Copple B.L. Upregulation of early growth response factor-1 by bile acids requires mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling.Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2010; 243: 63-67Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar Accordingly, we next determined whether bile acids increase expression of proinflammatory mediators in hepatocytes. For this study, hepatocytes were exposed to DCA, chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA), and taurocholic acid (TCA). DCA was chosen because several studies have shown that DCA activates signal transduction pathways in hepatocytes.28Qiao L. Studer E. Leach K. McKinstry R. Gupta S. Decker R. Kukreja R. Valerie K. Nagarkatti P. El Deiry W. Molkentin J. Schmidt-Ullrich R. Fisher P.B. Grant S. Hylemon P.B. Dent P. Deoxycholic acid (DCA) causes ligand-independent activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and FAS receptor in primary hepatocytes: inhibition of EGFR/mitogen-activated protein kinase-signaling module enhances DCA-induced apoptosis.Mol Biol Cell. 2001; 12: 2629-2645Crossref PubMed Scopus (204) Google Scholar, 29Dent P. Fang Y. Gupta S. Studer E. Mitchell C. Spiegel S. Hylemon P.B. Conjugated bile acids promote ERK1/2 and AKT activation via a pertussis toxin-sensitive mechanism in murine and human hepatocytes.Hepatology. 2005; 42: 1291-1299Crossref PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar, 30Allen K. Kim N.D. Moon J.O. Copple B.L. Upregulation of early growth response factor-1 by bile acids requires mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling.Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2010; 243: 63-67Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar CDCA was chosen because serum levels of CDCA increase in BDL mice.14Marschall H.U. Wagner M. Bodin K. Zollner G. Fickert P. Gumhold J. Silbert D. Fuchsbichler A. Sjovall J. Trauner M. Fxr(−/−) mice adapt to biliary obstruction by enhanced phase I detoxification and renal elimination of bile acids.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 582-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar TCA was chosen because serum levels of cholic acid increase in BDL mice,14Marschall H.U. Wagner M. Bodin K. Zollner G. Fickert P. Gumhold J. Silbert D. Fuchsbichler A. Sjovall J. Trauner M. Fxr(−/−) mice adapt to biliary obstruction by enhanced phase I detoxification and renal elimination of bile acids.J Lipid Res. 2006; 47: 582-592Crossref PubMed Scopus (99) Google Scholar and because we recently determined that >99% of cholic acid is conjugated with taurine (Copple, Jaeschke, and Klaassen, unpublished data). Exposure of primary mouse hepatocytes to DCA, CDCA, or TCA increased mRNA levels of ICAM-1 and macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2), a neutrophil chemokine involved in cholestatic liver injury (Figure 2, A and B).31Wintermeyer P. Cheng C.W. Gehring S. Hoffman B.L. Holub M. Brossay L. Gregory S.H. Invariant natural killer T cells suppress the neutrophil inflammatory response in a mouse model of cholestatic liver damage.Gastroenterology. 2009; 136: 1048-1059Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (56) Google Scholar Next we investigated the mechanism by which bile acids increase expression of ICAM-1 and MIP-2 in hepatocytes. Studies have demonstrated that bile acids kill hepatocytes by apoptosis and necrosis in vitro.28Qiao L. Studer E. Leach K. McKinstry R. Gupta S. Decker R. Kukreja R. Valerie K. Nagarkatti P. El Deiry W. Molkentin J. Schmidt-Ullrich R. Fisher P.B. Grant S. Hylemon P.B. Dent P. Deoxycholic acid (DCA) causes ligand-independent activation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and FAS receptor in primary hepatocytes: inhibition of EGFR/mitogen-activated protein kinase-signaling module enhances DCA-induced apoptosis.Mol Biol Cell. 2001; 12: 2629-2645Crossref PubMed Scopus (204) Google Scholar Apoptotic bodies and proteins released from necrotic cells have been shown to increase expression of proinflammatory mediators in some cells types.32Canbay A. Feldstein A.E. Higuchi H. Werneburg N. Grambihler A. Bronk S.F. Gores G.J. Kupffer cell engulfment of apoptotic bodies stimulates death ligand and cytokine expression.Hepatology. 2003; 38: 1188-1198Crossref PubMed Scopus (383) Google Scholar Accordingly, we next determined whether bile acids caused apoptosis or necrosis in our studies and whether apoptosis contributed to the increase in ICAM-1 and MIP-2 mRNAs in bile acid-treated hepatocytes. Exposure of hepatocytes to DCA, CDCA, and TCA did not increase caspase 3 activity (Figure 3A), stimulate ALT release (Figure 3B), or cause morphological changes consistent with apoptosis or necrosis (Figure 3, C–F). Lastly, treatment of hepatocytes with quinoline-val-asp-difluorophenoxymethylketone, a pan-caspase inhibitor, did not prevent up-regulation of MIP-2 or ICAM-1 by DCA (Figure 3, G and H). Previous studies demonstrated that FXR regulates ICAM-1 in HepG2 cells.33Qin P. Borges-Marcucci L.A. Evans M.J. Harnish D.C. Bile acid signaling through FXR induces intracellular adhesion molecule-1 expression in mouse liver and human hepatocytes.Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2005; 289: G267-G273Crossref PubMed Scopus (38) Google Scholar To determine whether this occurs in vivo during cholestasis, wild-type and FXR knockout mice were subjected to BDL. Bile duct ligation increased ICAM-1 mRNA levels to the same extent in wild-type and FXR knockout mice (Figure 4A). MIP-2 mRNA levels were increased to a greater e