Article5 May 2005free access The yeast lipin Smp2 couples phospholipid biosynthesis to nuclear membrane growth Helena Santos-Rosa Helena Santos-Rosa WellcomeTrust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joanne Leung Joanne Leung Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Neil Grimsey Neil Grimsey Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Sew Peak-Chew Sew Peak-Chew MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Symeon Siniossoglou Corresponding Author Symeon Siniossoglou Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Helena Santos-Rosa Helena Santos-Rosa WellcomeTrust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Joanne Leung Joanne Leung Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Neil Grimsey Neil Grimsey Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Sew Peak-Chew Sew Peak-Chew MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Symeon Siniossoglou Corresponding Author Symeon Siniossoglou Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK Search for more papers by this author Author Information Helena Santos-Rosa1,‡, Joanne Leung2,‡, Neil Grimsey2, Sew Peak-Chew3 and Symeon Siniossoglou 2,3 1WellcomeTrust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, Cambridge, UK 2Cambridge Institute for Medical Research (CIMR), University of Cambridge, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK 3MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, UK ‡These authors contributed equally to this work *Corresponding author. Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, University of Cambridge, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2XY, UK. Tel.: +44 1223 762641/+44 1223 331960; Fax: +44 1223 762640; E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (2005)24:1931-1941https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.emboj.7600672 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Remodelling of the nuclear membrane is essential for the dynamic changes of nuclear architecture at different stages of the cell cycle and during cell differentiation. The molecular mechanism underlying the regulation of nuclear membrane biogenesis is not known. Here we show that Smp2, the yeast homologue of mammalian lipin, is a key regulator of nuclear membrane growth during the cell cycle. Smp2 is phosphorylated by Cdc28/Cdk1 and dephosphorylated by a nuclear/endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane–localized CPD phosphatase complex consisting of Nem1 and Spo7. Loss of either SMP2 or its dephosphorylated form causes transcriptional upregulation of key enzymes involved in lipid biosynthesis concurrent with a massive expansion of the nucleus. Conversely, constitutive dephosphorylation of Smp2 inhibits cell division. We show that Smp2 associates with the promoters of phospholipid biosynthetic enzymes in a Nem1–Spo7-dependent manner. Our data suggest that Smp2 is a critical factor in coordinating phospholipid biosynthesis at the nuclear/ER membrane with nuclear growth during the cell cycle. Introduction The defining characteristic of eukaryotic cells is the compartmentalization of chromatin inside the nucleus. The nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm are separated by the nuclear envelope that consists of two closely opposed lipid bilayers, the inner and outer nuclear membranes (Gant and Wilson, 1997). The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and functions in lipid biosynthesis and protein secretion whereas the inner nuclear membrane faces the nucleoplasm and provides an anchoring site for chromatin at the nuclear periphery. In metazoans, the inner nuclear membrane is lined with a filamentous network of intermediate filaments, the nuclear lamina (Gruenbaum et al, 2003). The two membranes are connected at the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), evolutionarily conserved multiprotein assemblies that mediate nucleocytoplasmic transport (Suntharalingam and Wente, 2003). Nuclear assembly is a highly complex process that requires the coordinated biosynthesis, targeting and interaction of nuclear membrane with nuclear pores, inner nuclear membrane proteins and chromatin (reviewed in Mattaj, 2004). In animal cells, the nuclear envelope breaks down at the onset of mitosis so that the spindle can access and attach to the chromosomes. In vitro experiments using frog oocyte extracts (reviewed in Burke and Ellenberg, 2002) have demonstrated that following the postmitotic nuclear envelope assembly, the closed nuclear membrane undergoes expansion, presumably to accommodate further chromatin decondensation and later on DNA replication. In contrast to animal cells, budding yeast, like other unicellular fungi, separate its chromosomes within a single intact nucleus that partitions between mother and daughter cell (Byers and Goetsch, 1975). The hallmark of the so-called ‘closed mitosis’ of yeast cells is the rapid expansion of the nucleus along the mother–daughter axis that takes place during anaphase and is driven by the elongation of the intranuclear spindle (Yeh et al, 1995). Although the cytology of nuclear division in yeast and animal cells is different, in both cases the nucleus expands during the cell cycle. The molecular mechanism underlying nuclear membrane growth is poorly understood: nuclear growth in cell-free systems takes place via homotypic fusion of vesicles with the outer nuclear membrane and depends on the triple AAA ATPase p97 in complex with p47, Ran-dependent nuclear import and lamins (Newport et al, 1990; Zhang and Clarke, 2000; Hetzer et al, 2001), but how exactly these factors regulate incorporation of a new membrane into the nuclear envelope in vitro and whether they also function in vivo is not known. The ER is a complex network of membrane tubules and cisternae that is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane, or ‘nuclear ER’ and extends throughout the cytoplasm to form the ‘peripheral ER’. In budding yeast, most of the peripheral ER forms a continuous tubular network underlying the plasma membrane (Novick et al, 1980; Preuss et al, 1991). The ER membrane is the major site of lipid biosynthesis and in yeast consists largely of phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine (Paltauf et al, 1992). Membrane biogenesis at the ER in yeast is regulated primarily by the intracellular concentration of the essential phospholipid precursors inositol and choline (Henry and Patton-Vogt, 1998). When inositol levels are low, a transcription factor complex composed of the basic helix–loop–helix proteins Ino2p and Ino4p activates the expression of many genes encoding phospholipid, fatty acid and sterol biosynthetic enzymes. Conversely, high levels of inositol induce nuclear translocation of Opi1, an ER-localized transcription factor, to repress transcription of phospholipid biosynthetic genes (Loewen et al, 2004). Interestingly, phospholipid biosynthesis is also transcriptionally induced in response to the need for more ER membrane during the unfolded protein response (Cox et al, 1997), suggesting that lipid metabolism is coordinated with ER growth. The Nup84 complex is an evolutionarily conserved component of the nuclear pore required for nuclear pore biogenesis in yeast (Siniossoglou et al, 1996) and animal cells (Walther et al, 2003). Through a synthetic lethality screen with a nup84 mutant, we have previously identified a complex of two integral nuclear/ER membrane proteins, Nem1 and Spo7, essential for correct nuclear morphology (Siniossoglou et al, 1998). As of yet the function of these proteins have remained elusive. In this study, we show that the Nem1–Spo7 complex is a novel phosphatase, which regulates nuclear growth by controlling recruitment of Smp2, the yeast homologue of the adipogenic factor Lipin 1, onto promoters of phospholipid biosynthetic genes. Our data provide a first evidence for a link between membrane biosynthesis and nuclear envelope growth. Results Overproduction of SMP2 restores nuclear membrane structure in nem1 and spo7 cells In a screen looking for mutations that are synthetically lethal when combined with a knockout of the nucleoporin NUP84, we have previously identified a complex of two integral nuclear and ER membrane proteins, Nem1 and Spo7 (Siniossoglou et al, 1998). Nem1Δ and spo7Δ mutants exhibit a striking proliferation of the nuclear membrane that leads to a substantial expansion of the nucleus and the presence of long nuclear membrane extensions that penetrate into the cytoplasm. These elongations contain nuclear pores and intranuclear soluble proteins but, strikingly, no DNA. Interestingly, despite these defects in nuclear structure, nem1Δ and spo7Δ mutants grow normally at 30°C and do not display defects in nucleocytoplasmic transport (Siniossoglou et al, 1998). Although overexpression of certain ER membrane proteins can induce proliferation of ER membrane stacks, often referred to as ‘karmellae’ in yeast and ‘crystalloid ER’ in animal cells (Wright et al, 1988; Wanker et al, 1995; Koning et al, 1996), these do not appear to affect the overall size and structure of the nucleus. Thus, Nem1–Spo7 could have a specific role in controlling ER membrane flow and nuclear membrane production. To elucidate the function of Nem1–Spo7, we decided to search for genes that could suppress the nuclear membrane proliferation of spo7Δ knockout cells. We reasoned that rescuing the nuclear defects of the spo7Δ mutant could also suppress its synthetic lethality with the nup84Δ. Therefore, we conducted a screen for genes that, in high copy, can suppress the synthetic lethality of the nup84Δspo7Δ double knockout strain. This genetic approach identified SMP2 (Figure 1A), a gene originally isolated in a screen for mutants showing increased stability of heterologous plasmids (Irie et al, 1993). Smp2Δ deletion mutants are viable but grow slowly at 30°C and exhibit temperature-sensitive growth at 37°C (data not shown). We found that overexpression of SMP2 in spo7Δ, nem1Δ and nem1Δspo7Δ mutants can efficiently (a) suppress their slow growth phenotypes at 37°C (Figure 1B and data not shown) and (b) restore a normal nuclear envelope and nuclear structure in all three mutants, as judged by a nuclear/ER membrane (Sec63-GFP) and nucleoplasmic (GFP-Pus1) reporters, respectively (Figure 1C and data not shown). In contrast, overproduction of SMP2 does not suppress the temperature sensitivity of the nup84Δ mutant (data not shown). We conclude that overexpression of SMP2 can overcome the requirement for the Nem1–Spo7 complex in nuclear membrane organization. Figure 1.Functional interaction between NEM1–SPO7 and SMP2. (A) Identification of SMP2 as a high-copy number suppressor of the nup84Δ spo7Δ synthetic lethal mutant. The nup84Δ spo7Δ double deletion strain carrying a centromeric vector expressing NUP84 was transformed with the indicated plasmids. Transformants were grown on plates containing 5-FOA for 3 days. (B) SMP2 rescues the temperature-sensitive growth defect of spo7Δ cells. Spo7Δ cells transformed with the indicated plasmids were diluted in YEPD, spotted onto selective (-Leu) plates and grown at 37°C for 2 days. (C) Overexpression of SMP2 suppresses the nuclear membrane proliferation of nem1Δ spo7Δ cells. Upper panel: the nem1Δ spo7Δ mutant or the isogenic wild-type strain, expressing the ER marker Sec63-GFP were transformed with the indicated plasmids. Transformants were visualized by confocal microscopy. Bars, 5 μm. Lower panel: percentage of cells with no or small buds containing a round nucleus in wild-type and nem1Δ strains expressing GFP-Pus1. Three different transformants per strain were analyzed and for each one the number of cells counted was n=200. (D) Smp2 is evolutionarily conserved. Schematic representation of the primary structure of Smp2. The gray and black boxes indicate the highly conserved amino-terminal (N-lipin) and C-terminal (C-lipin) domains within Smp2. The percent sequence identity between the yeast domains and putative orthologues in various species is given. Download figure Download PowerPoint Smp2 belongs to a large family of evolutionarily conserved proteins present in eukaryotic species. The founding member of this family is Lipin1, a recently identified nuclear protein required for adipocyte differentiation whose mutation results in the fatty liver dystrophy (fld) phenotype in mice (Peterfy et al, 2001). All members of the Lipin family share a high degree of similarity in two domains of unknown function, N-lipin located next to their N-termini, and C-lipin found close to their C-termini (Figure 1D). PSI-BLAST searches show that the C-lipin domain is distantly related to the conserved C-terminal domain of the rdg/Nir family of proteins involved in lipid trafficking and signalling (Lev, 2004; our unpublished observations). Mammalian species express three Lipin orthologues that share no significant homology outside the two conserved domains. Smp2, like most members of the Lipin family, contain a predicted C-terminal nuclear localization signal. Thin section electron microscopy (Figure 2A) and double labelling using an intranuclear GFP fusion that depicts nuclear structure (Siniossoglou et al, 1998) and DNA staining revealed that cells lacking SMP2, like the spo7Δ, and nem1Δ mutants, have enlarged and irregularly shaped nuclei, often consisting of two or more interconnected lobes within a single cell (Figure 2B). The most remarkable feature of the smp2Δ cells is the presence of long nuclear membrane projections that appear to be directly connected to the main body of the nucleus. We noticed often that these projections appear to associate with the peripheral ER at the cell cortex. Although we can occasionally see short arrays of stacked ER membranes tightly associated with the nuclear envelope, these do not have the ordered arrangement of karmellae membranes around the nucleus. Figure 2.Deletion of SMP2 induces nuclear membrane proliferation and nuclear expansion. (A) Thin section electron microscopy of wild-type (SMP2) or smp2Δ cells grown at 30°C and stained with potassium permanganate. Detail panels show enlargements of areas of the nuclear envelope in smp2Δ cells (highlighted by arrows) that display membrane proliferation. Bars, 0.5 μm. (B) DNA staining of wild-type (SMP2) or smp2Δ knockout cells expressing an intranuclear GFP-reporter (GFP-Pus1) used to depict nuclear structure (‘nucleus’). Cells were grown in selective medium at 30°C, fixed for 30 min and inspected by confocal microscopy. The white arrow points to a dividing yeast cell. Bars, 5 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint The Nem1–Spo7 complex dephosphorylates Smp2 In order to understand the role of Smp2 in nuclear membrane biogenesis, we set out to define its functional link with Nem1–Spo7. Multiple sequence alignments reveal that the conserved carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of Nem1 contains a predicted Ser/Thr phosphatase CPD (CTD-like phosphatase) domain. The hallmark of the CPD phosphatases is a stretch of 11 residues, different from the phosphatase motifs of the other known protein phosphatase families, the DXDX (T/V) motif, with the first aspartate acting as the phosphoryl acceptor residue (Kobor et al, 1999). To test directly whether Nem1–Spo7 has phosphatase activity, we affinity purified the native complex from detergent-solubilized extracts derived from yeast cells expressing a functional Nem1-PtA using IgG-Sepharose chromatography (Figure 3A) and assayed it against an artificial substrate (p-nitrophenylphosphate ‘p-NPP’). As seen in Figure 3B, the Nem1p–Spo7p complex exhibits phosphatase activity. This effect is specific since no p-NPP hydrolysis was observed when the Nem1[D257A]–Spo7 complex, carrying a point mutation in the Nem1 phosphoacceptor site, was used in the assay. Moreover, in the absence of Spo7, Nem1 did not provide any detectable activity. This finding explains why the individual nem1Δ and spo7Δ cells display very similar, if not identical, phenotypes and genetic interactions with the nup84Δ mutant (Siniossoglou et al, 1998). Taken together, these data strongly suggest that within the Nem1–Spo7 holoenzyme, Nem1p is the catalytic subunit and Spo7 the regulatory subunit necessary for catalytic activity in vitro. Figure 3.Dephosphorylation of Smp2 by the Nem1–Spo7 complex. (A) Upper panel: domain organization of Nem1. TMD, transmembrane domain. CPD, CTD Phosphatase domain. The DLD phosphoacceptor site is indicated. Lower panel: affinity purification of Nem1-PtA (‘wt’) and Nem1[D257A]-PtA (‘D257A’). Purified proteins were analyzed by SDS–PAGE and Coomassie staining. The positions of the PtA-fusions and copurifying Spo7 are indicated. (B) The Nem1–Spo7 complex exhibits phosphatase activity in vitro. In vitro dephosphorylation of p-nitrophenylphosphate (p-NPP) by the Nem1–Spo7 complex. IgG-Sepharose beads loaded with (Nem1-PtA)–(Spo7-Myc), (Nem1[D257A]-PtA)–(Spo7-Myc) or Nem1-PtA fusions, were tested for the ability to hydrolyze p-NPP as described under Materials and methods. Absorbance of the generated p-nitrophenol (p-NP) was measured at 410 nm. The amount of Nem1 and Spo7 in each reaction was followed by Western blot with anti-PtA and anti-Myc antibodies respectively. (C) Nem1–Spo7 is a phosphatase for Smp2. Protein extracts from smp2Δ (lanes 1 and 2) or nem1Δ spo7Δ smp2Δ (lanes 3 and 4) strains expressing a Smp2-PtA fusion were prepared in the presence (lanes 1 and 3) or absence (lanes 2 and 4) of phosphatase inhibitors. Smp2-PtA was detected by western blot using anti-PtA antibody. (D) In vitro dephosphorylation of Smp2 by the Nem1–Spo7 complex. Native Smp2 (2 μg) was incubated with IgG-Sepharose beads alone (‘buffer’) or beads containing the indicated protein A fusions for 30 min at 30°C. Reactions were resolved by 7% SDS–PAGE and Coomassie stained. Download figure Download PowerPoint This result prompted us to test whether Smp2 could be the physiological substrate of Nem1–Spo7 in vivo. To this end, we tried to resolve Smp2 mobility shifts by SDS–PAGE, which are often indicative of phosphorylation. A functional Protein A tagged Smp2 fusion (Smp2-PtA) expressed from the SMP2 promoter in smp2Δ cells migrates predominantly as a single band in wild-type cells (Figure 3C, lane 2). A second band of reduced electrophoretic mobility could also be detected in the wild-type extracts prepared in the presence of phosphatase inhibitors (Figure 3C, lane 1). Furthermore, the reduced electrophoretic mobility band was stronger in extracts from the nem1Δspo7Δ strain (Figure 3C, lanes 3 and 4). These results show that Smp2 is phosphorylated in vivo and that Nem1–Spo7 is required for Smp2 dephosphorylation. To test whether Nem1–Spo7 directly catalyses Smp2 dephosphorylation, we purified Smp2-PtA from a nem1Δspo7Δ smp2Δ strain and eluted the native Smp2 off the IgG-Sepharose beads by TEV protease cleavage. Purified Smp2 was then incubated with IgG-Sepharose beads containing Nem1-PtA–Spo7 complex in vitro. The Smp2 doublet collapses down to a faster migrating form in a phosphatase inhibitor-dependent manner (Figure 3D). Importantly, the Nem1[D257A]–Spo7 complex containing the phosphoacceptor mutant was inactive in this assay showing that this mobility shift depends on a catalytically active Nem1–Spo7 complex. Overall, these data show that Nem1–Spo7 complex is a phosphatase for Smp2. The fact that deletion of NEM1-SPO7, like that of SMP2, induces nuclear membrane proliferation suggests that phosphorylation of Smp2 inactivates SMP2 and drives nuclear membrane production. Smp2 is phosphorylated by Cdc28 at the onset of mitosis Smp2 was recently identified in a large-scale screen for in vitro substrates of Cdc28/Cdk1 (Ubersax et al, 2003). In budding yeast, Cdc28 is the only cyclin-dependent kinase that, in complex with any of the three G1 and six B-type cyclins, drives cell cycle progression (Mendenhall and Hodge, 1998). Several lines of evidence imply that Cdc28/Cdk1 phosphorylates in vivo Smp2: first, we find that the phosphorylation of an Smp2-PtA fusion is cell cycle regulated, with the modification appearing at the onset of mitosis (Figure 4A) and causing a mobility shift similar to that seen in the nem1Δspo7Δ mutant. Second, Smp2 phosphorylation was abolished in the cdc28-4 mutant after shifting the cells to the restrictive temperature (Figure 4B, left panel). Third, although phosphorylation of Smp2 is mostly unaffected in the six single B-type yeast cyclin deletion mutants (CLB1 to 6, data not shown), we found that it decreased in cells lacking the pair of the closely homologous mitotic cyclins CLB3 and CLB4 but not in cells lacking the S-phase cyclins CLB5 and CLB6 (Figure 4B, right panel). Fourth, Smp2 is recognized in vivo by an antibody specific for phosphorylated Cdc28/Cdk1 sites (anti-MPM2, Davis et al, 1983), in a Nem1–Spo7- dependent manner (Figure 4C). Taken together, these data are consistent with Smp2 being phosphorylated in a cell-cycle-dependent manner by mitotic cyclin-Cdc28/Cdk1 complexes. Figure 4.Smp2 is phosphorylated in a cell-cycle-dependent manner by Cdc28. (A) Phosphorylation of Smp2 takes place during mitosis. Cells expressing Smp2-PtA were synchronized by alpha-factor arrest/release. Protein extracts were prepared every 20 min and analyzed by Western blot using the indicated antibodies. Cell cycle stages were monitored by Clb2 cyclin levels and budding index. (B) Left panel: protein extracts from wild-type (‘CDC28’) or cdc28-4 cells expressing Smp2-PtA grown for the indicated times at 37°C were analyzed by Western blot using anti-PtA antibodies. Right panel: protein extracts from clb3Δclb4Δ and clb5Δclb6Δ cells expressing Smp2-PtA were analyzed as above. (C) Native Smp2 is recognized by the MPM2 antibody in a Nem1–Spo7-dependent manner. Samples from the experiment in Figure 3D were transferred onto nitrocellulose membrane and incubated with the MPM2 antibody. Download figure Download PowerPoint Deletion of phosphorylated Smp2 inhibits cell division Deletion of the Nem1–Spo7 induces nuclear expansion that can be suppressed by overexpression of its substrate Smp2 (Figure 1C). This result supports the idea that Nem1–Spo7 mediated dephosphorylation of Smp2 represses nuclear growth during interphase. What could be the consequence of constitutive dephosphorylation of Smp2? To address this question, we coexpressed NEM1 and SPO7 under the control of the strong inducible GAL1/10 promoter. As seen in Figure 5A, overexpression of the Nem1–Spo7 complex is lethal, but importantly, only in the presence of its substrate Smp2. Thus, the toxic effect of Nem1–Spo7 overexpression in wild-type cells is mediated by Smp2. Western blot analysis of lysates prepared from galactose-induced cells shows that Nem1-PtA levels reach a maximum by 8 h (data not shown) while an Smp2-PtA fusion collapses to a faster migrating form, consistent with its in vivo dephosphorylation by Nem1–Spo7 (Figure 5B). An examination of the morphology of cells overexpressing Nem1–Spo7 for 9 h showed that they contained a significantly higher percentage of large-budded cells with GFP-Pus1 labeled nuclei at the bud neck (data not shown). In agreement with an increase on the proportion of mitotic cells, spindle length measurements using a tubulin-GFP fusion revealed that 50% of the cells at 9 h induction contain short spindles positioned at the bud neck (Figure 5C). Cells overexpressing Nem1–Spo7 continued to grow in size until 21 h of induction (Figure 5D, compare size of Nem1–Spo7 and vector control) after which they lysed. The fact that deletion of SMP2 rescues these defects (Figure 5C and D), suggests that the accumulation of dephosphorylated Smp2 inhibits mitotic division. Figure 5.Accumulation of dephosphorylated Smp2 inhibits cell division. (A) Overexpression of the Nem1–Spo7 complex is lethal only in the presence of Smp2. Wild-type (‘SMP2’) or smp2Δ cells transformed with centromeric vectors expressing NEM1 and SPO7 under the control of the GAL1/10 promoter, or with the corresponding empty vectors, were spotted onto selective plates supplemented with glucose or galactose and grown at 30°C. (B) Cells overexpressing NEM1–SPO7 for the indicated times were analyzed for Smp2-PtA mobility shifts by Western blot using anti-PtA antibodies. (C) Wild-type or smp2Δ cells overexpressing NEM1–SPO7 or empty vectors were scored for short spindles (1–3 μm) at the indicated times by using a tubulin-GFP reporter. (D) Cell (left panels) and spindle (right panels) morphologies using a tubulin-GFP fusion of wild-type or smp2Δ strains overexpressing NEM1–SPO7 or empty vector for 21 h. The white arrow points to a typical short spindle. Bars, 5 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Smp2-mediated nuclear growth depends on phopholipid biosynthesis How does Smp2 control nuclear membrane growth? Since the outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the ER, we hypothesized that factors controlling ER membrane production could also be responsible for the nuclear membrane expansion observed in smp2Δ, spo7Δ and nem1Δ mutants. The major lipid components of the ER membrane in yeast are phosphatidylinositol and phosphatidylcholine. Production of these lipids is regulated primarily by the availability of the soluble phospholipid precursor inositol: repression is mediated by the negative regulator Opi1 (White et al, 1991) and activation by the global phospholipid transcription complex Ino2/Ino4 (Hoshizaki et al, 1990; Nikoloff et al, 1992). Two experiments show that de novo phospholipid biosynthesis is actually required for the nuclear membrane growth in smp2Δ and nem1Δ spo7Δ cells. First, disruption of phospholipid biosynthesis, by deleting the activator INO2 represses nuclear expansion and restores a spherical nucleus in 90% of the nem1Δ spo7Δ and smp2Δ cells as seen by labelling the nuclear membrane with Sec63-GFP (Figure 6, compare panel B with C and panel E with F) or the nucleus with Pus1-GFP (Supplementary Figure 1). Similarly, overexpression of the repressor OPI1 (which renders cells inositol auxotrophs) in the nem1Δ spo7Δ mutant results in an efficient suppression of the nuclear membrane proliferation (Figure 6, panel D). Second, the mRNA levels of INO1, the rate-limiting enzyme for phosphatidylinositol synthesis and its transcriptional activator INO2 showed a significant upregulation in cells lacking SMP2 or NEM1–SPO7 with respect to the wild type, as monitored by standard and quantitative RT–PCR experiments (Figure 7A and B). Moreover, transcription of OPI3, the enzyme catalyzing the final steps in the production of phosphatidylcholine (McGraw and Henry, 1989) is also upregulated. The increase in the mRNA levels is higher in smp2Δ than nem1Δ spo7Δ mutants, consistent with the fact that smp2Δ cells exhibit a more severe nuclear membrane proliferation than its phophatase mutants. Interestingly, mRNA levels of the resident ER membrane protein Sec63, or nuclear envelope components like the nucleoporins Nup49 and Nup84 are not altered (Figure 7A and B). Thus, deletion of SMP2 or its phosphatase complex NEM1–SPO7 induce the expression of enzymes involved in lipid synthesis of the ER/nuclear membrane but not the protein components that assemble on them. Figure 6.Inhibition of the phospholipid biosynthetic pathway restores normal nuclear membrane structure in smp2Δ and nem1Δ spo7Δ cells. SEC63-GFP was used to visualize nuclear membrane structure in wild type (A), nem1Δ spo7Δ (B), nem1Δ spo7Δ ino2Δ (C), nem1Δ spo7Δ overexpressing OPI1 (D), smp2Δ (E), smp2Δ ino2Δ (F) and smp2Δ ino2Δ complemented by a plasmid expressing INO2 (G) strains. Transformants in early logarithmic phase were visualized by confocal microscopy. Bars, 5 μm. Download figure Download PowerPoint Figure 7.Smp2 regulates expression of phospholipid biosynthetic genes. (A) Transcription of key genes involved in phospholipid biosynthesis is upregulated in smp2Δ and nem1Δ spo7Δ mutants. The mRNA levels of INO1, INO2, OPI3, SEC63, NUP49 and ACT1 were analyzed in the smp2Δ, nem1Δ spo7Δ and isogenic wild-type strains by semiquantitative RT–PCR. (B) As in (A), but the mRNA levels of INO1, INO2, OPI3, SEC63, NUP49 and NUP84 were analyzed by quantitative RT–PCR. Amplification of each sample was performed in triplicate and normalized to a control gene, RTG2, which is expressed at similar level to those analyzed and is unaffected by smp2Δ or nem1Δ spo7Δ mutations. Errors were less than 5% except for the smp2Δ INO1 sample. The fold-difference for the three strains is given below. (C) Upregulation of phospholipid biosynthesis in smp2Δ is independent of the unfolded protein response (UPR) pathway. The mRNA levels of INO1 and ACT1 were analyzed in the smp2Δ, smp2Δ ire1Δ and isogenic wild-type strains by RT–PCR (left panel). The nuclear morphology of smp2Δ, smp2Δ ire1Δ and isogenic wild-type cells