Lung cancer, one of the most common cancers, is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. While the incidence of lung cancer in non-smokers (LCINS) has been rising due to the overall decline in smoking rates, non-smokers account for about 10%–20% of all lung cancer cases [1]. Primary factors associated with LCINS include exposure to carcinogens, such as radon, second-hand smoke, and other indoor air pollutants. Despite these known factors, many of the lung cancer cases among non-smokers cannot be definitively linked to established environmental risks. Research indicates that LCINS differs from smoking-related lung cancer in terms of genetic mutations, tumour mutational burden (TMB), and chromosomal abnormalities, suggesting it is a distinct disease entity. A deeper understanding of the genetic alterations common in LCINS and its genomic landscape could lead to the identification of new molecular targets and improve outcomes for non-smokers. LCINS is more prevalent in women and Asians and is often diagnosed at a younger age than smoking-related lung cancer. The most common histological type of LCINS is adenocarcinoma. Unlike lung cancers in smokers, which are caused by a combination of genetic mutations and environmental exposure, LCINS is primarily driven by specific genetic mutations. Key mutations in LCINS involve driver genes, such as KRAS, EGFR, BRAF, and ALK fusions [2]. These alterations distinguish LCINS from smoking-related lung cancer and contribute to its unique biology and tumour microenvironment (TME) [3]. Recent studies have provided insights into the molecular characteristics of LCINS. A comprehensive genomic analysis of 160 LUAD (lung adenocarcinoma) samples revealed a potential role for germline variants in DNA repair genes, such as BRCA1, BRCA2, FANCG, FANCM, MSH6, and POLD1, in the development of LCINS [4]. Additionally, passive exposure to cigarette smoke was found to contribute to the pathogenesis of some non-smoker LUADs. LCINS tumours also exhibit a higher prevalence of targetable driver alterations in the RTK/RAS/RAF signalling pathway compared to smokers. These tumours can be categorised into immune 'cold' and 'hot' subtypes. The cold subtype, which lacks immune markers like PD-L1 and is depleted of immune cells, suggests immune evasion mechanisms. In contrast, hot tumours show a more active immune response. LCINS tumours have lower TMBs than those in smokers and often harbour mutations in genes like CTNNB1, which is involved in Wnt signalling. This signalling pathway helps tumours evade immune detection and may explain the relatively poor response to immunotherapy in non-smokers compared to smokers. High-coverage whole genome sequencing (WGS) of 232 LCINS cases identified three distinct subtypes of LCINS based on somatic copy number alterations [5]. Subtype 1 (piano) tumours were characterised by slow tumour growth and fewer mutations, with KRAS mutations being the most common. KRAS mutations promote the proliferation of bronchioalveolar stem cells and contribute to tumour growth. Subtype 2 (mezzo-forte) tumours display mutations in EGFR, which is associated with faster tumour growth. Subtype 3 (forte) tumours grew the fastest and showed characteristics similar to lung cancers in smokers. This subtype was dominated by whole-genome doubling (WGD) and had a low TMB with a high proportion of subclonal mutations, indicating significant intra-tumour heterogeneity. Interestingly, no major differences were found in the mutational profiles of passive versus non-passive smokers. The median TMB in LCINS tumours is significantly lower than in smokers, and TMB is associated with clinical factors such as stage, histology, and age [2, 6]. Moreover, female patients are more likely to have EGFR mutations than males. Mutations in EGFR and KRAS commonly occur together, and co-occurring mutations in RBM10 and TP53 are also frequently observed in EGFR-altered tumours. Additionally, significant co-occurring patterns were identified between RBM10 and PIK3CA, as well as between TP53 and ERBB2. In tumours with oncogene fusions, particularly those with TP53 mutations, SETD2 mutations were also enriched. The majority of LCINS tumours (54.3%) exhibit alterations in the RTK-RAS pathway, with EGFR being the most commonly altered gene (30.6%), followed by KRAS (7.3%), ALK (6%), MET (4.3%), ERBB2 (3.9%), ROS1 (2.6%), and RET (1.3%). Most previous reports have focused on European descent (EUR) populations, but genetic alterations in non-smokers vary by ethnicity [2, 7]. Lung adenocarcinoma patients of East Asian descent (EAS) had fewer genomic alterations and more stable genomes than those of EUR. EGFR mutations were more frequent in EAS, while EUR showed more KRAS and other driver mutations. TMB was lower in non-smokers than smokers in both groups, and EGFR and KRAS mutations were mutually exclusive. A study conducted in Taiwan analysed the molecular attributes of LCINS in a cohort of 83% non-smokers, combining genomic, proteomic, and phosphoproteomic data [7]. The analysis revealed that age and gender influence mutagenesis in LCINS, with younger females showing a high prevalence of APOBEC-related mutations and older females having more environmentally driven mutagenic signatures. Approximately 85% of the patients had EGFR mutations, followed by TP53 (33%) and RBM10 (20%). Proteomics-informed classification helped distinguish clinical characteristics of early-stage patients with EGFR mutations. Ongoing efforts to understand the genomic and epigenomic factors driving LCINS will facilitate the development of targeted therapies tailored to non-smokers. This could lead to better survival outcomes for this group. LCINS remains a significant public health challenge, and further research into its incidence, aetiology, and biology is critical. Prospective data collection on mutation status, smoking history, and environmental exposures is essential to improve our understanding of this complex disease and to develop more effective treatments for non-smokers (Figure 1). AM has received honoraria from AstraZeneca, Nippon Kayaku, Merck Biopharma, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Kyowa Kirin, and Pfizer. MS has received grants and contracts from any entity from Taiho Pharmaceutical, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Eli Lilly, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim, Nippon Kayaku, and Kyowa Kirin; honoraria from AstraZeneca, MSD K.K, Chugai Pharmaceutical, Taiho Pharmaceutical, Eli Lilly, Ono Pharmaceutical, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, Novartis, Takeda Pharmaceutical, Kyowa Kirin, Nippon Kayaku, Daiichi-Sankyo Company, Merck Biopharma, and Amgen inc.