Previous studies indicate that, for reinforced concrete (RC) structures, the abrupt collapse of a corner column poses a notably higher risk of progressive collapse than the loss of a middle or edge column. This is because after a corner column is lost, the restraining force from the adjacent elements is much weaker. To minimize the vulnerability of RC structures when a corner column is lost abruptly, an innovative slab-strengthening scheme (high-performance ferrocement laminate and bonded steel plate (HPFL-BSP)) was applied. Two scaled-down substructures, each at a 1/3 scale featuring identical dimensions and reinforcement details, were previously prepared. The slab of one substructure was reinforced with HPFL-BSP. The progressive collapse performance of the strengthened specimen was evaluated based on experimental results, encompassing the load–displacement relationship, ductility, and failure modes. Experimental results indicate that the slab-strengthening scheme shifted the location of the slab yield line and transformed the beams from brittle torsional failure to ductile flexural failure. The peak bearing capacity and ductility increased by 29.4% and 78.6%, respectively. Subsequently, finite element models were established and validated to further investigate the effects of the HPFL-BSP strengthening scheme on the stress distribution in slab reinforcements and the load redistribution mechanism. Additionally, the effects of different HPFL-BSP strengthening schemes, reinforcement damage, boundary conditions, and beam–slab interaction on the anti-progressive collapse performance were also investigated using the ABAQUS software. In the theoretical analysis, the resistance mechanism of RC structures subjected to corner column removal was analyzed. Moreover, a theoretical model was introduced to predict the capacity for resisting progressive collapse.