American Journal of TransplantationVolume 14, Issue 9 p. 1992-2000 Meeting ReportFree Access Proceedings From an International Consensus Meeting on Posttransplantation Diabetes Mellitus: Recommendations and Future Directions A. Sharif, Corresponding Author A. Sharif Department of Nephrology and Transplantation, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UKCorresponding author: Adnan Sharif, adnan.sharif@uhb.nhs.ukSearch for more papers by this authorM. Hecking, M. Hecking Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorA. P. J. de Vries, A. P. J. de Vries Division of Nephrology and Transplant Medicine, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorE. Porrini, E. Porrini Center for Biomedical Research of the Canary Islands, CIBICAN, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorM. Hornum, M. Hornum Department of Nephrology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorS. Rasoul-Rockenschaub, S. Rasoul-Rockenschaub Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Berlakovich, G. Berlakovich Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorM. Krebs, M. Krebs Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorA. Kautzky-Willer, A. Kautzky-Willer Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Schernthaner, G. Schernthaner Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorP. Marchetti, P. Marchetti Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pisa, Pisa, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorG. Pacini, G. Pacini Metabolic Unit, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Research Council, Padova, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorA. Ojo, A. Ojo Division of Nephrology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MISearch for more papers by this authorS. Takahara, S. Takahara Department of Advanced Technology for Transplantation, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, JapanSearch for more papers by this authorJ. L. Larsen, J. L. Larsen Department of Internal Medicine, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NESearch for more papers by this authorK. Budde, K. Budde Department of Nephrology, Charité University, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorK. Eller, K. Eller Clinical Division of Nephrology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Pascual, J. Pascual Servicio de Nefrología, Hospital del Mar, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. Jardine, A. Jardine Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. J. L. Bakker, S. J. L. Bakker Department of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen and University of Groningen, Groningen, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorT. G. Valderhaug, T. G. Valderhaug Department of Endocrinology, Akershus University Hospital, Lorenskog, NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorT. G. Jenssen, T. G. Jenssen Department of Organ Transplantation, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorS. Cohney, S. Cohney Department of Nephrology, Royal Melbourne and Western Hospitals, Melbourne, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorM. D. Säemann, M. D. Säemann Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this author A. Sharif, Corresponding Author A. Sharif Department of Nephrology and Transplantation, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Birmingham, UKCorresponding author: Adnan Sharif, adnan.sharif@uhb.nhs.ukSearch for more papers by this authorM. Hecking, M. Hecking Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorA. P. J. de Vries, A. P. J. de Vries Division of Nephrology and Transplant Medicine, Department of Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorE. Porrini, E. Porrini Center for Biomedical Research of the Canary Islands, CIBICAN, University of La Laguna, Tenerife, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorM. Hornum, M. Hornum Department of Nephrology, Copenhagen University Hospital Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, DenmarkSearch for more papers by this authorS. Rasoul-Rockenschaub, S. Rasoul-Rockenschaub Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Berlakovich, G. Berlakovich Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorM. Krebs, M. Krebs Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorA. Kautzky-Willer, A. Kautzky-Willer Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorG. Schernthaner, G. Schernthaner Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorP. Marchetti, P. Marchetti Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of Pisa, Pisa, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorG. Pacini, G. Pacini Metabolic Unit, Institute of Biomedical Engineering, National Research Council, Padova, ItalySearch for more papers by this authorA. Ojo, A. Ojo Division of Nephrology, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MISearch for more papers by this authorS. Takahara, S. Takahara Department of Advanced Technology for Transplantation, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, JapanSearch for more papers by this authorJ. L. Larsen, J. L. Larsen Department of Internal Medicine, Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NESearch for more papers by this authorK. Budde, K. Budde Department of Nephrology, Charité University, Berlin, GermanySearch for more papers by this authorK. Eller, K. Eller Clinical Division of Nephrology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, AustriaSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Pascual, J. Pascual Servicio de Nefrología, Hospital del Mar, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, SpainSearch for more papers by this authorA. Jardine, A. Jardine Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UKSearch for more papers by this authorS. J. L. Bakker, S. J. L. Bakker Department of Internal Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen and University of Groningen, Groningen, the NetherlandsSearch for more papers by this authorT. G. Valderhaug, T. G. Valderhaug Department of Endocrinology, Akershus University Hospital, Lorenskog, NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorT. G. Jenssen, T. G. Jenssen Department of Organ Transplantation, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, Oslo, NorwaySearch for more papers by this authorS. Cohney, S. Cohney Department of Nephrology, Royal Melbourne and Western Hospitals, Melbourne, AustraliaSearch for more papers by this authorM. D. Säemann, M. D. Säemann Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, AustriaSearch for more papers by this author First published: 06 August 2014 https://doi.org/10.1111/ajt.12850Citations: 293AboutSectionsPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Abstract A consensus meeting was held in Vienna on September 8–9, 2013, to discuss diagnostic and therapeutic challenges surrounding development of diabetes mellitus after transplantation. The International Expert Panel comprised 24 transplant nephrologists, surgeons, diabetologists and clinical scientists, which met with the aim to review previous guidelines in light of emerging clinical data and research. Recommendations from the consensus discussions are provided in this article. Although the meeting was kidney-centric, reflecting the expertise present, these recommendations are likely to be relevant to other solid organ transplant recipients. Our recommendations include: terminology revision from new-onset diabetes after transplantation to posttransplantation diabetes mellitus (PTDM), exclusion of transient posttransplant hyperglycemia from PTDM diagnosis, expansion of screening strategies (incorporating postprandial glucose and HbA1c) and opinion-based guidance regarding pharmacological therapy in light of recent clinical evidence. Future research in the field was discussed with the aim of establishing collaborative working groups to address unresolved questions. These recommendations are opinion-based and intended to serve as a template for planned guidelines update, based on systematic and graded literature review, on the diagnosis and management of PTDM. Abbreviations AGM afternoon glucose monitoring CNI calcineurin inhibitor GRADE Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation NODAT new-onset diabetes after transplantation OGTT oral glucose tolerance test PTDM posttransplantation diabetes mellitus Introduction Previously published consensus guidelines on the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus after transplantation acknowledged the importance of posttransplant diabetes in all forms of solid organ transplantation and the need for pro-active, multi-disciplinary management 1, 2. As these were based on conferences held a decade ago, an International Expert Panel of clinicians/researchers was recently convened (Vienna, Austria, September 8–9, 2013) with two objectives: (1) update previous consensus statements and (2) debate current gaps in our clinical evidence base. The panel comprised 24 transplant clinicians, diabetologists and scientists with an active interest in the field. Invitations were based upon a meeting prerequisite to systematically review existing literature for presentation at an open scientific session, encouraging debate and discussion 3. This session contributed to the proceedings of the subsequent closed meeting of the International Expert Panel the following day. While the focus was on kidney transplantation, reflecting the published literature, the principles are likely relevant to all forms of solid organ transplantation. This Meeting Report summarizes our major recommendations from the consensus meeting, with quality of evidence graded in line with GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) definitions 4. GRADE provides a systematic approach to grade quality of evidence and strength of recommendations. Consensus opinion was to provide the following recommendations: high (Recommendation 4), moderate (Recommendations 2, 3, 5 and 6) and none possible (Recommendation 1 and 7). Readers requiring comprehensive literature reviews as background information are recommended recent publications in this area 5, 6. It is anticipated these opinion-based recommendations will form the template for a planned comprehensive update to existing guidelines. Recommendation 1: Change Terminology From New-Onset Diabetes After Transplantation Back to Posttransplantation Diabetes Mellitus (PTDM) The term new-onset diabetes after transplantation (NODAT) was adopted to acknowledge the pathophysiological consequences of transplantation on glycemic metabolism. However, the term may be misleading, as diabetes is often unrecognized 7, 8. The term NODAT implies exclusion of diabetes prior to transplantation, but effective pretransplant screening is impractical for many centers. The term posttransplantation diabetes mellitus (PTDM) addresses these shortcomings by simply describing newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus in the posttransplantation setting (irrespective of timing or whether it was present but undetected prior to transplantation or not). The term PTDM should be utilized for clinically stable patients who have developed persistent posttransplantation hyperglycemia (see Table 1). The term prediabetes should be utilized for patients with posttransplantation hyperglycemia not reaching diagnostic thresholds for PTDM (impaired fasting glucose and/or impaired glucose tolerance) (Table 1). Fasting glucose has a low sensitivity for diagnosing PTDM, as kidney allograft recipients have relatively preserved fasting glucose concentrations after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) 9-11. Consequently, lowering the threshold for impaired fasting glucose in the screening for PTDM seems appropriate and the American Diabetes Association cutoff (5.6 mmol/L [100 mg/dL]) was preferred over the World Health Organization cutoff (6.1 mmol/L [110 mg/dL]). These updated terms are utilized for the rest of this report. Table 1. Diagnostic criteria for diabetes mellitus and prediabetes by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) ADA11 A confirmatory laboratory test based on measurements of venous plasma glucose must be done on any subsequent day in the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia accompanied by acute metabolic decompensation. Symptoms of diabetes include polyuria, polydipsia and unexplained weight loss. Random plasma glucose is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal. Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 h. The oral glucose tolerance test should be performed using a glucose load of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water. Diabetes mellitus Symptoms of diabetes plus RPG ≥ 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) OR FPG ≥ 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) OR 2HPG ≥ 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) during an OGTT OR HbA1c ≥ 6.5% Prediabetes Impaired fasting glucose FPG 100–126 mg/dL (5.6–6.9 mmol/L) Impaired glucose tolerance FPG < 7.0 mmol/L AND 2HPG 7.8–11.0 mmol/L Increased risk of diabetes HbA1c 5.7–6.4% Normal glucose tolerance FPG < 110 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) AND 2HPG < 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L) AND HbA1c < 5.7% RPG, random plasma glucose; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; 2HPG, 2-h plasma glucose after an oral glucose. 1 A confirmatory laboratory test based on measurements of venous plasma glucose must be done on any subsequent day in the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia accompanied by acute metabolic decompensation. Symptoms of diabetes include polyuria, polydipsia and unexplained weight loss. Random plasma glucose is defined as any time of day without regard to time since last meal. Fasting is defined as no caloric intake for at least 8 h. The oral glucose tolerance test should be performed using a glucose load of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water. Recommendation 2: Exclude Transient Posttransplantation Hyperglycemia From PTDM Diagnosis Hyperglycemia is exceptionally common in the early posttransplant period, detectable in approximately 90% of kidney allograft recipients in the early few weeks 12, 13. Hyperglycemia can also occur as a consequence of rejection therapy, infections and other critical conditions. While identifying transient posttransplantation hyperglycemia is important, being an important risk factor for subsequent PTDM 14, ubiquitously labeling the majority of kidney allograft recipients with PTDM in the immediate posttransplant setting is not helpful. A formal diagnosis of PTDM is best made when patients are stable on their likely maintenance immunosuppression, with stable kidney allograft function and in the absence of acute infections. Recommendation 3: Expand Screening Tests for PTDM Using Postprandial Glucose Monitoring and HbA1c to Raise Suspicion, While Oral Glucose Tolerance Tests Remain the Most Important The transplant community lacks data linking glycemic parameters with long-term macrovascular (e.g. myocardial infarct, stroke) and microvascular (e.g. retinopathy, nephropathy) complications, remaining dependent on outcome studies from the nontransplant population 15. As no glycemic indicator posttransplantation has demonstrated superiority with regard to long-term outcomes, the optimal measure remains unclear. At present, the OGTT is considered the gold standard for diagnosing PTDM. OGTTs identify more patients with diabetes posttransplantation than fasting glucose measurement alone 9-11, a similar observation to the general population, but detection is higher due to different pathophysiology between PTDM and type 2 diabetes 6, 16. An OGTT also allows diagnosis of impaired glucose tolerance to be made, which is an independent risk factor for long-term development of PTDM, cardiovascular disease and mortality when tested either before 17 or after transplantation 18, 19. However, OGTTs are not widely used as they are time consuming and impractical in a large transplant program. HbA1c-based diagnosis is endorsed for diagnosis of diabetes mellitus in the general population 20 and we recommend elevated HbA1c be used to recognize PTDM (see Table 1). Caution must be exercised with its use early posttransplantation, as a normal HbA1c will not exclude diagnosis in the presence of posttransplantation anemia and/or dynamic renal allograft function 21. However, HbA1c 5.7–6.4% or higher in this early period would indicate the need to follow up with a recognized diagnostic test, although HbA1c greater than 6.5% is unlikely to be a false positive. Shabir et al 22 suggest optimum HbA1c cut-off values for predicting PTDM at 3 and 12 months of 44 mmol/mol (6.2%) and 48 mmol/mol (6.5%), respectively (latter equivalent to general population), but this analysis was based on a small cohort of 71 kidney allograft recipients and requires further validation. Yates et al 23 recently reported afternoon glucose monitoring (AGM) in kidney allograft recipients, using capillary blood glucose, was more sensitive to both OGTT and HbA1c for detecting hyperglycemia in the initial 6-week posttransplant period in patients on corticosteroid containing regimens. However, this approach has not been validated for diagnosis of PTDM. Thus, testing for AGM in the early postoperative period may better identify individuals who should receive an OGTT or other recognized diagnostic testing. The use of screening strategies should help to streamline diagnosis of PTDM, through identification of a subset of high-risk patients who should undergo further testing. One study demonstrated the benefit of a screening algorithm based upon fasting glucose and/or HbA1c, thereby reducing overall number of OGTTs required 9. The superiority of this streamlined approach over more widespread OGTT testing for PTDM remains to be determined. Surveillance for glycemic abnormalities pretransplantation, including OGTT when possible, will help identify patients who have undiagnosed diabetes 8 or prediabetes 17. Studies have shown the utility of glucose-based diagnostic criteria pretransplantation 8, but using HbA1c is fraught with difficulty in patients with severe renal impairment or end-stage kidney disease. Kidney transplant candidates should have an annual check of glycemic status, either in the form of fasting glucose or risk-stratified OGTT (based upon center-specific screening algorithm). However, evidence is insufficient to recommend OGTTs for all kidney transplant candidates unless it forms part of a risk-stratified algorithm 8. Recommendation 4: Identify Patients at Risk for PTDM Risk factors for PTDM are well established 24, encompassing both general (e.g. age, family history of diabetes, prior history of glucose intolerance 25) and transplant-specific (e.g. immunosuppression) factors, with accruing risk factors associated with greater PTDM risk. Novel targets continue to be identified, incorporating an improved understanding of metabolic syndrome and identification of select genetic polymorphisms as PTDM risk factors. Israni et al 26 found posttransplant metabolic syndrome independently associated with subsequent risk of PTDM. When occurring pretransplantation, the metabolic syndrome 27 and its components such as pretransplant hypertriglyceridemia and BMI 28, as well as prediabetes 17 have predicted increased risk for PTDM. Specifically pretransplantation insulin resistance, putatively the underlying pathophysiology of metabolic syndrome, was found to be a risk factor for PTDM 7. Pancreatic beta cell dysfunction (reflected by high fasting proinsulin concentrations) has been shown to be a risk factor for PTDM 29 and these data are supported by genetic polymorphism studies. Kim et al 30 identified an association between single nucleotide polymorphisms within 10 genes of interleukins or their receptors as predictors of PTDM. Similarly, Tavira et al 31 demonstrated an association between KNNJ11 polymorphisms, hypothesized to impair insulin release from pancreatic beta cells, and PTDM. Screening for posttransplant glucose abnormalities (Recommendation 3) is even more important in those patients identified to be at a higher risk of PTDM. In a prospective cohort of over 600 patients undergoing serial OGTTs, the vast majority of late PTDM were prediabetic at 3 months 32. Trials are needed to determine whether modifying established or novel risk factors can attenuate progression to PTDM. Recommendation 5: Choose and Use Immunosuppression Regimens Shown to Have the Best Outcome for Patient and Graft Survival, Irrespective of PTDM Risk Immunosuppression is the major modifiable risk factor for development of PTDM but risk versus benefit analysis is required to balance risk of developing PTDM versus rejection. Cole et al 33 demonstrated adverse graft survival after development of either rejection or PTDM, with development of both resulting in the worst outcomes. Therefore, no specific recommendation is made to advocate a definitive immunosuppressant strategy for allograft recipients based upon PTDM risk alone. Based on the current lack of evidence we also recommend caution in immunosuppressant adjustments in the event that PTDM develops, with a need to account for patient-specific risk factors such as immunological risk. The DIRECT study confirmed the increased diabetogenicity of tacrolimus compared to cyclosporine postkidney transplantation in a randomized controlled trial, with no difference in adverse events 34. However, this was a 6-month trial and glycemic benefits need to be weighed against risk for long-term graft attrition. In addition, target tacrolimus levels were higher than the contemporary approach of reduced calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) exposure. A recent meta-analysis of 56 randomized controlled trials demonstrated less PTDM and better overall graft survival with CNI-minimization or avoidance strategies using new agents such as belatacept or tofacitinib 35. Results are awaited from groups evaluating alternative strategies such as selecting CNI (tacrolimus vs. cyclosporine) based on pretransplant PTDM risk (clinicaltrials.org: NCT01002339). There is limited evidence supporting conversion from tacrolimus to cyclosporine in established PTDM, both from previous literature 36 and a preliminary report of randomized trial data 37, but the benefits must be weighed against any risks associated with conversion. Late changes in immunosuppressive regimens may reverse PTDM without jeopardizing graft outcomes, but this requires further evaluation to ensure glycemic benefits outweigh allograft risks. Johnston et al, analyzing data from the United States Renal Data System, found sirolimus were independently associated with increased risk for PTDM 38. Fewer reports have conflictingly found glycemic benefits after conversion from CNIs to sirolimus 39. There is no evidence to suggest any glycemic effects of anti-proliferative agents such as mycophenolate mofetil or azathioprine. Steroid minimization is a common strategy to attenuate risk of PTDM. However, a beneficial effect of corticosteroid sparing strategies has not been demonstrated 40. A recent meta-analysis of corticosteroid withdrawal between 3 and 6 months after transplantation found no meaningful effect on PTDM incidence 41. Early corticosteroid withdrawal after a few days has shown decreased PTDM incidence, but this was only significant when the CNI used was cyclosporine compared to tacrolimus 42. Moreover, a mild increase in the incidence of acute rejection with corticosteroid sparing strategies might counterbalance the metabolic beneficial effect 41. The degree of glycemic burden from low-dose corticosteroid maintenance therapy is unclear and therefore steroid avoidance/withdrawal strategies require careful risk/benefit assessment in the context of long-term outcomes. The impact of steroid avoidance/withdrawal is all the more uncertain given the current use of lower CNI target levels and rapid weaning of corticosteroids. Split corticosteroid dosing may also reduce glycemic variability and peak hyperglycemia 43. Data in relation to the impact of induction therapy are limited and no firm conclusions can be drawn. In a recent meta-analysis of five studies (n = 492 patients), the mAb alemtuzumab was found to be associated with a borderline lower risk of developing PTDM than IL-2 receptor antagonists 44. This could be due to CNI- and steroid-sparing strategies employed with alemtuzumab use or a diabetogenic effect of IL-2 receptor antagonists. Supporting the latter is a single-center retrospective study of 264 renal transplant recipients, where induction with basiliximab was associated with a significantly greater risk of developing PTDM compared to no induction (51.5% vs. 36.9%, p = 0.017) at 10 weeks posttransplantation 45. Recommendation 6: Use Strategies for Prevention and Treatment Beyond Modification of Immunosuppressive Regimens Prevention is ideal and guidance should be given to all potential transplant recipients regarding their risk of developing PTDM. Intervention when necessary can be in the form of nonpharmacological and/or pharmacological therapy. Sharif et al 46 demonstrated the potential for benefit from lifestyle modification in kidney allograft recipients with impaired glucose tolerance (13/25 patients reverted to normal glucose tolerance after median of 9 months, with only 1 progressing to PTDM). Thus, as observed in the general population 47, exercise and lifestyle modification may reduce the risk of patients with prediabetes developing PTDM. However, there remains a need for well-powered clinical trials to evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of these interventions to prevent PTDM in a larger renal transplant population. Werzowa et al 48 reported a randomized controlled trial comparing safety and efficacy of vildagliptin (dipeptidylpeptidase-4 inhibitor) with pioglitazone (thiazolidinedione) or placebo in kidney allograft recipients with impaired glucose tolerance. Adverse events were equivalent in all three arms and both pioglitazone and vildagliptin produced comparable reduction in 2-h postprandial glucose levels. Metformin may be an attractive anti-hyperglycemic agent to reduce the likelihood of PTDM in high-risk individuals 49 but the benefits of metformin need to be weighed against the risks associated with metformin in the context of impaired renal function (e.g. lactic acidosis). However, this association has been the subject of critical analysis 50 and well-designed clinical trials are necessary to shed light on the benefit versus risk ratio in relation to metformin. Lifestyle modification > oral anti-diabetic therapy > insulin is an appropriate stepwise approach for management of late-PTDM, but with immediate posttransplant hyperglycemia we recommend the reverse as the most appropriate management. Insulin is the only safe and effective agent in the context of high glucocorticoid doses and acute illness early posttransplant, but early and aggressive use of insulin may also have long-term benefits. In a randomized controlled trial, Hecking et al 12 demonstrated the benefit of early basal insulin therapy following detection of early posttransplant hyperglycemia (<3 weeks) at reducing subsequent odds of developing PTDM within the first year posttransplantation by 73%. A larger randomized controlled clinical trial (ITP-NODAT, clinicaltrials.org: NCT01683331) is currently evaluating whether these findings are reproducible in five centers recruiting over 300 patients. In addition, this study will determine whether early insulin therapy is feasible in patients who are hospitalized for a much shorter period than utilized in the original study. Treatment of posttransplantation hyperglycemia is in line with postoperative glucose management and, although representing a major shift from previous practice, consensus opinion was that this approach should be recommended but a glucose threshold for starting insulin was not specified (Figure 1). Although a relatively high glucose threshold of 200 mg/dL (evening or fasting) has been previously suggested, it may be reasonable to lower this threshold but further research is warranted before firm guidance can be issued. Figure 1Open in figure viewerPowerPoint Flowchart highlighting updated diagnostic and management framework for posttransplantation diabetes mellitus. The armamentarium of anti-diabetic therapy is increasing and individual pharmacological risk/benefit profiles must be evaluated in the context of transplantation 5, 6, 20. Dose adjustments or