The regulation of mitochondrial degradation through autophagy is expected to be a tightly controlled process, considering the significant role of this organelle in many processes ranging from energy production to cell death. However, very little is known about the specific nature of the degradation process. We developed a new method to detect mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy) by fusing the green fluorescent protein at the C terminus of two endogenous mitochondrial proteins and monitored vacuolar release of green fluorescent protein. Using this method, we screened several atg mutants and found that ATG11, a gene that is essential only for selective autophagy, is also essential for mitophagy. In addition, we found that mitophagy is blocked even under severe starvation conditions, if the carbon source makes mitochondria essential for metabolism. These findings suggest that the degradation of mitochondria is a tightly regulated process and that these organelles are largely protected from nonspecific autophagic degradation. The regulation of mitochondrial degradation through autophagy is expected to be a tightly controlled process, considering the significant role of this organelle in many processes ranging from energy production to cell death. However, very little is known about the specific nature of the degradation process. We developed a new method to detect mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy) by fusing the green fluorescent protein at the C terminus of two endogenous mitochondrial proteins and monitored vacuolar release of green fluorescent protein. Using this method, we screened several atg mutants and found that ATG11, a gene that is essential only for selective autophagy, is also essential for mitophagy. In addition, we found that mitophagy is blocked even under severe starvation conditions, if the carbon source makes mitochondria essential for metabolism. These findings suggest that the degradation of mitochondria is a tightly regulated process and that these organelles are largely protected from nonspecific autophagic degradation. The mitochondrion is an organelle that carries out a number of important metabolic processes such as fatty acid oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria also have a key role in the regulation of apoptosis (1Keeble J.A. Gilmore A.P. Cell Res. 2007; 17: 976-984Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar). Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation supplies a large amount of energy that contributes to a range of cellular activities. However, this organelle is also the major source of cellular reactive oxygen species that cause damage to mitochondrial lipid, DNA, and proteins, and the accumulation of this damage is related to aging, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases (2Wallace D.C. Annu. Rev. Genet. 2005; 39: 359-407Crossref PubMed Scopus (2562) Google Scholar). Thus, quality control of mitochondria is important to maintain cellular homeostasis. In fact, mitochondria have some of their own quality control systems including a protein degradation system (3Rep M. Grivell L.A. Curr. Genet. 1996; 30: 367-380Crossref PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar), DNA repair enzymes (4Larsson N.G. Clayton D.A. Annu. Rev. Genet. 1995; 29: 151-178Crossref PubMed Scopus (410) Google Scholar, 5Bogenhagen D.F. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1999; 64: 1276-1281Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar), and phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (6Arai M. Imai H. Koumura T. Yoshida M. Emoto K. Umeda M. Chiba N. Nakagawa Y. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 4924-4933Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (261) Google Scholar). In addition, it has long been assumed that autophagy is the pathway for mitochondrial recycling, and various theories suggest that a specific targeting of damaged mitochondria to vacuoles or lysosomes occurs by autophagy (7Abeliovich H. Klionsky D.J. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2001; 65: 463-479Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar), although there is little direct experimental evidence for selective recognition of mitochondria. Very recently, several studies suggest that selective mitochondrial degradation via autophagy (mitophagy) might play an important role for mitochondrial quality control (8Mijaljica D. Prescott M. Devenish R.J. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 4-9Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar, 9Priault M. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Vallette F.M. di Rago J.P. Martinou J.C. Cell Death Differ. 2005; 12: 1613-1621Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar, 10Nowikovsky K. Reipert S. Devenish R.J. Schweyen R.J. Cell Death Differ. 2007; 14: 1647-1656Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar, 11Twig G. Elorza A. Molina A.J. Mohamed H. Wikstrom J.D. Walzer G. Stiles L. Haigh S.E. Katz S. Las G. Alroy J. Wu M. Py B.F. Yuan J. Deeney J.T. Corkey B.E. Shirihai O.S. EMBO J. 2008; 27: 433-446Crossref PubMed Scopus (2230) Google Scholar, 12Zhang Y. Qi H. Taylor R. Xu W. Liu L.F. Jin S. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 337-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar). Macroautophagy is the bulk degradation of cytoplasmic components that allows cells to respond to various types of stress and to adapt to changing nutrient conditions (13Klionsky D.J. J. Cell Sci. 2005; 118: 7-18Crossref PubMed Scopus (776) Google Scholar, 14Yorimitsu T. Klionsky D.J. Trends Cell Biol. 2007; 17: 279-285Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (160) Google Scholar). After certain environmental cues such as nutrient deprivation or hormonal stimuli, cells dynamically sequester portions of the cytoplasm within double-membrane cytosolic vesicles, called autophagosomes, and the completed vesicles subsequently fuse with lysosomes/vacuoles (15Klionsky D.J. Ohsumi Y. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 1999; 15: 1-32Crossref PubMed Scopus (391) Google Scholar, 16Klionsky D.J. Emr S.D. Science. 2000; 290: 1717-1721Crossref PubMed Scopus (3014) Google Scholar). There are a number of selective autophagy pathways that appear to target specific cellular components, and the cytoplasm to vacuole targeting (Cvt) 2The abbreviations used are: Cvt, cytoplasm to vacuole targeting; GFP, green fluorescent protein; HA, hemagglutinin; PAS, phagophore assembly site. pathway and pexophagy are well understood examples. The Cvt pathway is an autophagy-like process that encompasses the biosynthetic routes of two known proteins, aminopeptidase I (Ape1) and α-mannosidase, without delivering any additional known cargo to the vacuole (16Klionsky D.J. Emr S.D. Science. 2000; 290: 1717-1721Crossref PubMed Scopus (3014) Google Scholar, 17Yorimitsu T. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2005; 16: 1593-1605Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar). Pexophagy is the selective degradation of peroxisomes via autophagy that occurs particularly when cells are shifted from conditions where these organelles are required for metabolism to ones where they are no longer necessary (18Dunn Jr., W.A. Cregg J.M. Kiel J.A.K.W. van der Klei I.J. Oku M. Sakai Y. Sibirny A.A. Stasyk O.V. Veenhuis M. Autophagy. 2005; 1: 75-83Crossref PubMed Scopus (219) Google Scholar). There are several lines of evidence from yeast to mammal that suggest that mitophagy is another type of selective autophagy. In mammalian cells, the mitochondrial permeability transition induces mitochondrial degradation (19Rodriguez-Enriquez S. He L. Lemasters J.J. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 2004; 36: 2463-2472Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar, 20Elmore S.P. Qian T. Grissom S.F. Lemasters J.J. FASEB J. 2001; 15: 2286-2287Crossref PubMed Scopus (547) Google Scholar), and daughter mitochondria with reduced membrane potential after a fission event are more likely to be targeted by autophagy (11Twig G. Elorza A. Molina A.J. Mohamed H. Wikstrom J.D. Walzer G. Stiles L. Haigh S.E. Katz S. Las G. Alroy J. Wu M. Py B.F. Yuan J. Deeney J.T. Corkey B.E. Shirihai O.S. EMBO J. 2008; 27: 433-446Crossref PubMed Scopus (2230) Google Scholar). In yeast, alterations of F0F1-ATPase biogenesis in a conditional mutant triggers autophagy (9Priault M. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Vallette F.M. di Rago J.P. Martinou J.C. Cell Death Differ. 2005; 12: 1613-1621Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar). Moreover, Aup1 and Uth1, both mitochondrial proteins, have been shown to be essential in inducing mitophagy (21Tal R. Winter G. Ecker N. Klionsky D.J. Abeliovich H. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 5617-5624Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar, 22Kissova I. Deffieu M. Manon S. Camougrand N. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 39068-39074Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (349) Google Scholar, 23Kissova I. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Bhatia S. Manon S. Camougrand N. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 329-336Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar). The molecular breakthroughs in autophagy including the identification of the molecular components of the Cvt pathway and pexophagy have taken place during only the past decade. The start of the molecular realm of autophagy began with the identification of autophagy-related (ATG) genes by genetic screening in yeast (24Xie Z. Klionsky D.J. Nat. Cell Biol. 2007; 9: 1102-1109Crossref PubMed Scopus (1741) Google Scholar, 25Klionsky D.J. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2007; 8: 931-937Crossref PubMed Scopus (1583) Google Scholar). To date, 31 ATG genes have been identified, and the biological properties of some Atg proteins have been characterized. Compared with autophagy, the genetic and molecular mechanisms of mitophagy are still poorly understood. This is in part due to the absence of a sensitive and convenient method for mitophagy induction and detection. For example, Tal et al. (21Tal R. Winter G. Ecker N. Klionsky D.J. Abeliovich H. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 5617-5624Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar) culture cells for more than 3 days to induce mitophagy, and Kissova et al., (23Kissova I. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Bhatia S. Manon S. Camougrand N. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 329-336Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar) use electron microscopy to detect the presence of mitochondria in the vacuole. In this study, we established a sensitive and convenient method to monitor mitophagy. Using this method, we screened several atg mutants and found that ATG11, a gene that is essential for only selective autophagy, is also essential for mitophagy. In addition, we found that mitophagy is blocked even under severe starvation conditions, if the carbon source makes mitochondria essential for metabolism. These findings suggest that the degradation of mitochondria is a tightly regulated process and that these organelles may be protected from nonspecific autophagic degradation. Strains and Media—The yeast strains used in this study are listed in Table 1. Yeast cells were grown in rich medium (YPD; 1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, 2% glucose), lactate medium (YPL; 1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, 2% lactate), synthetic minimal medium with glucose (0.67% yeast nitrogen base, 2% glucose, amino acids, and vitamins), synthetic minimal medium with galactose (0.67% yeast nitrogen base, 2% galactose, amino acids, and vitamins), or synthetic minimal medium with lactate (SML; 0.67% yeast nitrogen base, 2% lactate, amino acids, and vitamins). Starvation experiments were performed in synthetic minimal medium lacking nitrogen (SD-N; 0.17% yeast nitrogen base without amino acids, 2% glucose; or SL-N, 0.17% yeast nitrogen base without amino acids, 2% lactate).TABLE 1Yeast strains used in this studyStrainGenotypeSourceBY4742MATα his3Δ1 leu2Δ0 lys2Δ0 ura3Δ0InvitrogenCWY239SEY6210 atg17Δ::KANRef. 39Cheong H. Yorimitsu T. Reggiori F. Legakis J.E. Wang C.-W. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2005; 16: 3438-3453Crossref PubMed Scopus (184) Google ScholarD3Y108SEY6210 atg24Δ::HIS3 S.k.Ref. 38Nice D.C. Sato T.K. Stromhaug P.E. Emr S.D. Klionsky D.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 30198-30207Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (158) Google ScholarD3Y109SEY6210 atg20Δ::HIS3 S.k.Ref. 38Nice D.C. Sato T.K. Stromhaug P.E. Emr S.D. Klionsky D.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 30198-30207Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (158) Google ScholarFRY112SEY6210 atg8Δ::HIS5 S.p.This studyHAY456SEY6210 atg9Δ::HIS5 S.p.Ref. 52Reggiori F. Wang C.-W. Nair U. Shintani T. Abeliovich H. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2004; 15: 2189-2204Crossref PubMed Scopus (114) Google ScholarHCY109SEY6210 atg29Δ::KANThis studyHCY111SEY6210 atg31Δ::HIS5 S.p.This studySEY6210MATα his3-Δ200 leu2-3,112 lys2-801 trp1-Δ901 ura3-52 suc2-Δ9 GALRef. 53Robinson J.S. Klionsky D.J. Banta L.M. Emr S.D. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1988; 8: 4936-4948Crossref PubMed Scopus (739) Google ScholarSSY31SEY6210 atg19Δ:: HIS5 S.p.Ref. 42Scott S.V. Guan J. Hutchins M.U. Kim J. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Cell. 2001; 7: 1131-1141Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (210) Google ScholarTKYM22SEY6210 OM45-GFP::TRP1This studyTKYM29SEY6210 pep4Δ::LEU2, OM45-GFP::TRP1This studyTKYM50SEY6210 IDH1-GFP::KANThis studyTKYM58TN124 OM45-GFP::TRP1This studyTKYM81SEY6210 pep4Δ::LEU2, IDH-GFP::TRP1This studyTN124MATa leu2-3,112 ura3-52 trp1 pho8::pho8Δ60 pho13Δ::LEU2Ref. 27Noda T. Matsuura A. Wada Y. Ohsumi Y. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1995; 210: 126-132Crossref PubMed Scopus (295) Google ScholarWHY1SEY6210 atg1Δ::HIS5 S.p.Ref. 36Shintani T. Huang W.-P. Stromhaug P.E. Klionsky D.J. Dev. Cell. 2002; 3: 825-837Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (292) Google ScholarYTS147SEY6210 atg11Δ::LEU2This study Open table in a new tab PCR-based integration of a DNA fragment encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) at the 3′ end of OM45, IDH1, and PEX14 generated cells expressing chromosomally tagged Om45-GFP, Idh1-GFP, and Pex14-GFP, respectively, for the mitophagy and pexophagy assays (26Longtine M.S. McKenzie III, A. Demarini D.J. Shah N.G. Wach A. Brachat A. Philippsen P. Pringle J.R. Yeast. 1998; 14: 953-961Crossref PubMed Scopus (4193) Google Scholar). Plasmids and Antibodies—A doxycycline-regulated Mdm38-HA expression strain was generated by PCR amplification of the MDM38 gene with an HA tag from yeast genomic DNA using the following primers: 5-MDM38–1M-BamH1, 5′-ATATGGATCCATGTTGAATTTCGCATCAAGAGCG-3′; 3-MDM38-HAstop-Pst1, 5′-ATATCTGCAGCTAAGCATAGTCAGGCACATCATAGGGGTAATCTTTCTTAATGACAAAAGTCTTCGC-3′. The BamHI-PstI fragment was inserted into the respective site of the vector pCM189, yielding pTet-MDM38HA. The plasmid to express Myc-tagged Atg11 (pMyc-Atg11) has been described previously (17Yorimitsu T. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2005; 16: 1593-1605Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar). Monoclonal anti-GFP antibody clone 7.1 and 13.1 mixture (Roche Applied Science), monoclonal anti-YFP antibody clone JL8 (Clontech, Mountain View, CA), and anti-Pgk1 antibody (a generous gift from Dr. Jeremy Thorner (University of California, Berkeley)) were used for immunoblotting. Fluorescence Microscopy—Cells expressing fusion proteins with fluorescent tags were grown in YPL medium for the indicated times, and then cells were washed in SML medium before observation. Fluorescence signals were visualized on a wide field fluorescence inverted microscope (Olympus IX-70; Mellville, NY) equipped with a 100× oil NA 1.4 objective lens and fluorescein isothiocyanate filters. The images were captured by a Photometrix CoolSnap HQ camera (Photometrics, Tucson, AZ). Mitophagy Assays—For Assay 1, cells grown in YPD medium to mid-log phase were shifted to YPL medium (starting from A600 = 0.1) for 12 h. For starvation, the cells were washed in water two times and cultured in SD-N. The cells were collected at 0, 4, and 6 h, and the cell lysates equivalent to A600 = 0.1 unit of cells were subjected to immunoblot analysis. For Assay 2, cells grown in YPD medium to mid-log phase were shifted to YPL medium (starting from A600 = 0.1). After 12 ± 2 h (day 1), 36 ± 5 h (day 2), and 60 ± 5 h (day 3), the cells were collected and used for immunoblotting and fluorescence microscopy analysis. Assays for Autophagy and Pexophagy—For monitoring bulk autophagy, the alkaline phosphatase activity of Pho8Δ60 and processing of GFP-Atg8 were carried out as described previously (27Noda T. Matsuura A. Wada Y. Ohsumi Y. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1995; 210: 126-132Crossref PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar, 28Shintani T. Klionsky D.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 29889-29894Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (294) Google Scholar). Pex14-GFP processing to monitor pexophagy has been described previously (29Hutchins M.U. Veenhuis M. Klionsky D.J. J. Cell Sci. 1999; 112: 4079-4087Crossref PubMed Google Scholar, 30Yen W.-L. Legakis J.E. Nair U. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2007; 18: 581-593Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar). Monitoring Mitophagy Using C-terminal GFP-tagged Mitochondrial Protein Processing and Fluorescence Microscopy—To establish a method to induce and detect mitophagy in yeast, we took advantage of the observation that GFP present in fusion constructs is relatively stable within the vacuole lumen and is often released as an intact protein after delivery to the vacuole (28Shintani T. Klionsky D.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 29889-29894Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (294) Google Scholar). Therefore, we tagged the C terminus of several different mitochondrial proteins with GFP and monitored mitophagy by examining the localization and degradation of the chimera, with the concomitant release of free GFP, in the vacuole under several culture conditions. When cells were grown in medium with 2% lactate as the sole carbon source (YPL) for more than 12 h and then shifted to SD-N medium, two of the GFP-tagged mitochondrial proteins, the mitochondrial outer membrane protein Om45 and the matrix protein Idh1, showed GFP processing to an extent that depended on the duration of nitrogen starvation (Fig. 1, WT). This processing was not dependent on mitochondrial endogenous proteinases (such as Lon or Clp1), because both a mitochondrial outer membrane and matrix protein showed the same result. In contrast, strains deleted for ATG1, encoding a protein kinase essential for macroautophagy, or PEP4, one of the main vacuolar hydrolases, did not show GFP processing, suggesting that the appearance of free GFP was autophagy- and vacuole-dependent (Fig. 1). Recently it was reported that a mitochondrially targeted GFP protein accumulates in the vacuole after long term growth in lactate medium (21Tal R. Winter G. Ecker N. Klionsky D.J. Abeliovich H. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 5617-5624Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar). We cultured wild-type cells expressing Om45-GFP or Idh1-GFP in YPL medium for 1–3 days and monitored GFP processing and accumulation in the vacuole. After 2 days of growth in YPL, the GFP fluorescence became very clear in the vacuole (Fig. 2A, top panels), and at the same time, GFP was processed (Fig. 2, B and C, WT). The absence of Atg1 blocked both GFP processing and vacuolar GFP accumulation (Fig. 2). In contrast, deletion of PEP4 blocked GFP processing (Fig. 2, B and C) but showed vacuolar dotted fluorescence likely corresponding to autophagic bodies containing mitochondria as a cargo (Fig. 2A, bottom panels). These findings reconfirmed that processing of GFP-tagged mitochondrial proteins is autophagy-dependent and suggests that we are monitoring actual mitophagy. The time course of cell growth and mitophagy in lactate medium revealed that mitophagy was induced when cells reached post-log to stationary phase growth (data not shown). Previous studies have examined mitochondrial degradation induced by the doxycycline-regulated shut-off of the MDM38 gene (10Nowikovsky K. Reipert S. Devenish R.J. Schweyen R.J. Cell Death Differ. 2007; 14: 1647-1656Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar) or by impairing the bioenergetic status and the biogenesis of mitochondria using mutants defective in assembly or stability of the F0F1-ATPase (9Priault M. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Vallette F.M. di Rago J.P. Martinou J.C. Cell Death Differ. 2005; 12: 1613-1621Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar). We used an identical doxycycline-regulated MDM38 strain and separately used the mitochondrial complex V (ATP synthase) inhibitor oligomycin to determine whether our system relying on cleavage of OM45-GFP replicated these results. We found that free GFP was detected in either case, although the amount of processed GFP was extremely low compared with the mitophagy induction shown above (supplemental Fig. S1A and S2). Therefore, we repeated the analysis with oligomycin examining the effect over time and found that there was an increase in mitophagy that corresponded to the exposure time to the drug (supplemental Fig. S1B). These results fit with the previous findings that interference with the function of the F0F1-ATPase induces mitophagy (9Priault M. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Vallette F.M. di Rago J.P. Martinou J.C. Cell Death Differ. 2005; 12: 1613-1621Crossref PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar). Mitophagy Is Regulated Independent from Macroautophagy—Having developed a system that can be used to monitor mitophagy, we next wanted to address the question of whether this process can occur in a selective manner. When cells are cultured with a nonfermentable carbon source, a situation where cells require mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation for cell growth, the number of mitochondria and the mass amount of mitochondrial proteins are increased (31Ibrahim N.G. Stuchell R.N. Beattie D.S. Eur. J. Biochem. 1973; 36: 519-527Crossref PubMed Scopus (34) Google Scholar, 32Visser W. van Spronsen E.A. Nanninga N. Pronk J.T. Gijs Kuenen J. van Dijken J.P. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek. 1995; 67: 243-253Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar, 33Damsky C.H. J. Cell Biol. 1976; 71: 123-135Crossref PubMed Scopus (22) Google Scholar). If the medium is shifted to a fermentable carbon source, the level of mitochondria is eventually decreased. To determine whether the reduction of mitochondria is caused by mitophagy, wild-type cells expressing Om45-GFP were grown in YPL medium to mid-log phase and shifted to glucose medium (YPD) for 6 h, and mitophagy was monitored by GFP processing. Under these conditions, however, mitophagy was barely detected (data not shown). On the other hand, if we shifted the cells to SD-N medium, we detected a substantial level of free GFP (Fig. 3A). In contrast, when cells cultured in YPL were shifted to nitrogen starvation medium supplemented with lactate (SL-N) instead of glucose, mitophagy occurred at a very low level (Fig. 3A). These results suggest that detectable levels of mitophagy were not induced simply by shifting to a fermentable carbon source (YPD) or by shifting to starvation conditions in the presence of a nonfermentable carbon source (SL-N). To determine whether the lack of GFP processing reflected a block in mitophagy or a general block in macroautophagy, we next examined a marker for the latter process. Atg8 is one of two Atg proteins that remain associated with the completed autophagosome. Therefore, processing of GFP-Atg8 can be used to monitor nonspecific autophagy (34Klionsky D.J. Cuervo A.M. Seglen P.O. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 181-206Crossref PubMed Scopus (569) Google Scholar). We expressed GFP-Atg8 in the same cell background and monitored GFP-Atg8 processing after shifting to SD-N or SL-N. In this case, the amount of processed GFP was almost the same in both conditions, indicating that SL-N medium still induced a starvation response (Fig. 3B). To measure autophagic activity quantitatively, we used an additional assay. Pho8Δ60 is a truncated form of the vacuolar membrane enzyme alkaline phosphatase, which is normally delivered to this organelle through a portion of the secretory pathway. Pho8Δ60 lacks the N-terminal transmembrane domain that serves as an internal uncleaved signal sequence, and the altered protein remains in the cytosol; it is only delivered to the vacuole by autophagy, which results in cleavage of the C-terminal propeptide and enzyme activation. Thus, this assay monitors nonspecific autophagy (27Noda T. Matsuura A. Wada Y. Ohsumi Y. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1995; 210: 126-132Crossref PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar, 35Klionsky D.J. Methods Mol. Biol. 2007; 390: 363-372Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). We expressed Om45-GFP in the Pho8Δ60 strain and then monitored mitophagy and autophagic activity. As before, mitophagy was barely induced after cells were shifted to SL-N compared with SD-N. On the other hand, autophagic activity based on Pho8Δ60 activity was almost the same in both conditions (Fig. 3, C and D). Screening atg Mutants for Potential Mitophagy Defects—Currently, 31 genes are denoted as autophagy-related (ATG). We examined the mitophagy capacity of the atg mutants during starvation. ATG genes that are essential for both specific and nonspecific autophagy such as ATG8 and ATG9 were also essential for mitophagy (Fig. 4A and supplemental Fig. S3), in agreement with previous reports (12Zhang Y. Qi H. Taylor R. Xu W. Liu L.F. Jin S. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 337-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar, 21Tal R. Winter G. Ecker N. Klionsky D.J. Abeliovich H. J. Biol. Chem. 2007; 282: 5617-5624Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (220) Google Scholar, 23Kissova I. Salin B. Schaeffer J. Bhatia S. Manon S. Camougrand N. Autophagy. 2007; 3: 329-336Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar). Atg19 functions as a receptor for precursor Ape1 (prApe1) and is specific for the Cvt pathway (36Shintani T. Huang W.-P. Stromhaug P.E. Klionsky D.J. Dev. Cell. 2002; 3: 825-837Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar), and the absence of Atg19 did not affect mitophagy. In contrast, the atg11Δ mutant was completely blocked for the degradation of mitochondria (Fig. 4A and supplemental Fig. S3). Atg11 appears to function as an adaptor or scaffold protein and is needed for both the Cvt pathway and pexophagy but not for nonspecific autophagy (37Kim J. Kamada Y. Stromhaug P.E. Guan J. Hefner-Gravink A. Baba M. Scott S.V. Ohsumi Y. Dunn Jr., W.A. Klionsky D.J. J. Cell Biol. 2001; 153: 381-396Crossref PubMed Scopus (218) Google Scholar). The block in mitophagy seen in the atg11Δ strain was rescued by expressing Myc-tagged Atg11 (data not shown), indicating that the defect was due to the absence of this protein. To determine whether this block was specific to the atg11Δ strain, we next examined other atg mutant strains that are defective for selective autophagy but that have little or no effect on bulk autophagy. The atg20Δ and atg24Δ strains both showed a strong block in mitophagy, although not as severe as that seen with atg11Δ (Fig. 4A). Essentially the same results were obtained at the post-logarithmic phase in lactate medium (Fig. 5). Because the atg11Δ, atg20Δ, and atg24Δ strains displayed substantial blocks in mitophagy but are essentially normal for macroautophagy (37Kim J. Kamada Y. Stromhaug P.E. Guan J. Hefner-Gravink A. Baba M. Scott S.V. Ohsumi Y. Dunn Jr., W.A. Klionsky D.J. J. Cell Biol. 2001; 153: 381-396Crossref PubMed Scopus (218) Google Scholar, 38Nice D.C. Sato T.K. Stromhaug P.E. Emr S.D. Klionsky D.J. J. Biol. Chem. 2002; 277: 30198-30207Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (158) Google Scholar), these findings suggest that mitophagy is a selective process. The atg17Δ, atg29Δ, and atg31Δ strains are normal for the Cvt pathway and display substantial but not complete blocks in autophagy (30Yen W.-L. Legakis J.E. Nair U. Klionsky D.J. Mol. Biol. Cell. 2007; 18: 581-593Crossref PubMed Scopus (132) Google Scholar, 39Cheong H. Yorimitsu T. Reggiori F. Legakis J.E. Wang C.-W. Klionsky D.J. Mol. 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