Cervical cancer is the second most commonly diagnosed cancer and the third leading cause of cancer death among females in less developed countries. There were an estimated 527 600 new cervical cancer cases and 265 700 deaths worldwide in 2012 [1.Torre L.A. Bray F. Siegel R.L. et al.Global cancer statistics, 2012.CA Cancer J Clin. 2015; 65: 87-108Crossref PubMed Scopus (23568) Google Scholar]. Nearly 90% of cervical cancer deaths occurred in developing parts of the world. The large geographic variation in cervical cancer rates reflects differences in the availability of screening (which allows for the detection and removal of precancerous lesions) and in human papillomavirus (HPV) infection prevalence. However, cervical cancer still represents a major public health problem even in developed countries: more than 58 000 new cases of cervical cancer are diagnosed and ∼ 24 000 patients die in Europe every year [2.International Agency for Research on Cancer, EUCAN. http://eco.iarc.fr/eucan (29 April 2017, date last accessed).Google Scholar]. Five-year relative survival for European women diagnosed with cervical cancer in 2000–2007 was 62%, ranging from 57% in Eastern Europe to 67% in Northern Europe. Survival was particularly low (< 55%) in Bulgaria, Latvia and Poland and highest in Norway (71%) [3.Sant M. Chirlaque Lopez M.D. Agresti R. et al.Survival of women with cancers of breast and genital organs in Europe 1999–2007: results of the EUROCARE-5 study.Eur J Cancer. 2015; 51: 2191-2205Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar]. Survival decreased with advancing age at diagnosis, from 81% for 15–44-year olds to 34% for women ≥ 75 years. Survival increased significantly from 61% in 1999–2001 to 65% in 2005–2007. FIGO stage is one of the most important prognostic factors. The most significant cause of cervical cancer is persistent papillomavirus infection. HPV is detected in 99% of cervical tumours, particularly the oncogenic subtypes such as HPV 16 and 18. To date, three HPV vaccines are licensed and available: the bivalent HPV virus-like particle vaccine (2vHPV), the quadrivalent HPV virus-like particle vaccine (4vHPV) and nine-valent HPV virus-like particle vaccine (9vHPV). All 3 vaccines provide protection against HPV 16 and 18. 4vHPV also includes HPV 6 and 11 which cause 90% of genital warts. Furthermore, 9vHPV covers 5 more oncogenic HPV viruses (HPV 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58) in addition to the types already included in 4vHPV, which cause an additional 15% of HPV-related cancers in women and 4% of those in men [4.Petrosky E. Bocchini J.A. Hairi S. et al.Use of 9-valent human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine: updated HPV vaccination recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015; 64: 300-304PubMed Google Scholar]. Both the 2vHPV and 4vHPV have significant cross-protective activity against other oncogenic viruses. All three are efficacious against related infection and cervical, vaginal, vulvar and anal dysplasia [5.FUTURE II Study Group Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent high grade cervical lesion.N Engl J Med. 2007; 356: 1915-1927Crossref PubMed Scopus (1716) Google Scholar, 6.Paavonen J. Naud P. Salmerón J. et al.Efficacy of human papillomavirus (HPV) 16/18 AS04-adjuvanted vaccine against cervical infection and precancer caused by oncogenic HPV types (PATRICIA): final analysis of a double-blind, randomised study in young women.Lancet. 2009; 374: 301-314Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1347) Google Scholar, 7.Joura E.A. Giuliano A.R. Iversen O.E. et al.A 9-valent HPV vaccine against infection and intraepithelial neoplasia in women.N Engl J Med. 2015; 372: 711-723Crossref PubMed Scopus (912) Google Scholar]. Post-licensure reports from countries with established HPV vaccination programs indicate that HPV vaccination has a beneficial effect at the population level as early as 3 years after the introduction of an HPV vaccination programme, including decreases in the incidence of high-grade cervical abnormalities, the prevalence of vaccine HPV types and the incidence of genital warts [8.Markowitz L.E. Liu G. Hariri S. et al.Prevalence of HPV after introduction of the vaccination program in the United States.Pediatrics. 2016; 137: e20151968.Crossref PubMed Scopus (232) Google Scholar, 9.Ali H. Donovan B. Wand H. et al.Genital warts in young Australians five years into national human papillomavirus vaccination programme: national surveillance data.BMJ. 2013; 346: f2032.Crossref PubMed Scopus (336) Google Scholar]. Prophylactic administration of HPV vaccine can effectively prevent infection and disease associated with the vaccine HPV types. The effect of vaccination on the burden of cancer remains to be determined but, according to surrogate markers, it is expected to prevent > 70% of cervical cancers. For many years, the Papanicolaou (Pap) test has been the standard method for cervical cancer screening, reducing the incidence by 60%–90% and the death rate by 90%. However, the limitations of this cytology-based test are the sensitivity (∼ 50%) and significant proportion of inadequate specimens. More recently, an HPV test has been introduced as a screening tool as HPV deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is present in almost all cervical cancers and it has demonstrated higher sensitivity for high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN2+) than that achieved by cytology in several studies. A pooled analysis of four randomised controlled trials of HPV-based cervical screening versus conventional cytology showed that HPV-based cervical screening provides 60%–70% greater protection against invasive cancer compared with cytology-based screening [10.Ronco G. Dillner J. Elfström K.M. et al.Efficacy of HPV-based screening for prevention of invasive cervical cancer: follow-up of four European randomised controlled trials.Lancet. 2014; 383: 524-532Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1095) Google Scholar]. Findings support HPV-based screening with triage at prolonged intervals, starting at age 30 years. Especially in a vaccinated population when dysplastic lesions will be less frequent, screening with Pap tests will be more difficult. Pap cytology has significant limitations. It is based on the subjective interpretation of morphological alterations present in cervical samples that must be collected with proper attention to sampling cells of the transformation zone. Also, the highly repetitive nature of the work of screening many smears leads to fatigue, which invariably causes errors in interpretation. Therefore, primary prevention of cervical cancer is now possible via immunisation with highly efficacious HPV vaccines [II, A] and secondary prevention has gained impetus with the advent of sensitive HPV DNA testing to improve traditional Pap cytology screening programmes [II, A]. Abnormal cervical cytology or a positive high-risk HPV test should lead to colposcopy and biopsy or excisional procedures such as loop electrosurgical excision and conisation. Early cervical cancer is often asymptomatic, while locally advanced disease could cause symptoms including abnormal vaginal bleeding (also after coitus), discharge, pelvic pain and dyspareunia. Gross appearance is variable. Carcinomas can be exophytic, growing out of the surface, or endophytic with stromal infiltration with minimal surface growth. Some early cancers are not easily detected and even deeply invasive tumours may be somewhat deceptive on gross examination. If examination is difficult or there is uncertainty about vaginal/parametrial involvement, examination should preferably be done under anaesthesia by an interdisciplinary team including a gynaecological oncologist and a radiation oncologist. The World Health Organization (WHO) recognises three categories of epithelial tumours of the cervix: squamous, glandular (adenocarcinoma) and other epithelial tumours including adenosquamous carcinoma, neuroendocrine tumours and undifferentiated carcinoma (Table 1). Squamous cell carcinomas account for ∼ 70%–80% of cervical cancers and adenocarcinomas for 20%–25%.Table 1WHO histological classification of tumours of the uterine cervixEpithelial tumours1. Squamous tumours and precursors Squamous cell carcinoma, not otherwise specified8070/3 Keratinising8071/3 Non-keratinising8072/3 Basaloid8083/3 Verrucous8051/3 Warty8051/3 Papillary8052/3 Lymphoepithelioma-like8082/3 Squamotransitional8120/3 Early invasive (microinvasive) squamous cell carcinoma8076/3 Squamous intraepithelial neoplasia Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 3/8077/2 squamous cell carcinoma in situ8070/2 Benign squamous cell lesions Condyloma acuminatum Squamous papilloma8052/0 Fibroepithelial polyp2. Glandular tumours and precursors Adenocarcinoma8140/3 Mucinous adenocarcinoma8480/3 Endocervical8482/3 Intestinal8144/3 Signet-ring cell8490/3 Minimal deviation8480/3 Villoglandular8262/3 Endometrioid adenocarcinoma8380/3 Clear cell adenocarcinoma8310/3 Serous adenocarcinoma8441/3 Mesonephric adenocarcinoma9110/3 Early invasive adenocarcinoma8140/3 Adenocarcinoma in situ8140/2 Glandular dysplasia Benign glandular lesions Müllerian papilloma Endocervical polyp3. Other epithelial tumours Adenosquamous carcinoma8560/3 Glassy cell carcinoma variant8015/3 Adenoid cystic carcinoma8200/3 Adenoid basal carcinoma8098/3 Neuroendocrine tumours Carcinoid8240/3 Atypical carcinoid8249/3 Small cell carcinoma8041/3 Large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma8013/3 Undifferentiated carcinoma8020/3Mesenchymal tumours and tumour-like conditionsMixed epithelial and mesenchymal tumoursMelanocytic tumoursMiscellaneous tumoursLymphoid and haematopoetic tumoursSecondary tumoursMorphology code of the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) {921} and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (http://snomed.org).WHO, World Health Organization. Open table in a new tab Morphology code of the International Classification of Diseases for Oncology (ICD-O) {921} and the Systematized Nomenclature of Medicine (http://snomed.org). WHO, World Health Organization. Squamous carcinomas are composed of cells that are recognisably squamous but vary in either growth pattern or cytological morphology. Originally, they were graded using Broders’ grading system; subsequently, they were classified into keratinising, non-keratinising and small-cell squamous carcinomas. In the more recent WHO classification, the term small-cell carcinoma was reserved for tumours of neuroendocrine type. Keratinising squamous cell carcinomas are characterised by the presence of keratin pearls. Mitoses are not frequent. Non-keratinising squamous cell carcinomas do not form keratin pearls by definition, but may show individual cell keratinisation. Clear-cell changes can be prominent in some tumours and should not be misinterpreted as clear-cell carcinoma. The arrangement of the invasive glands is highly variable and some tumours are in part or extensively papillary. About 80% of adenocarcinomas of the cervix are of endocervical or usual type; unlike normal endocervical mucinous epithelium, tumour cells are not obviously mucinous and show a rather characteristic appearance having eosinophilic cytoplasm. The most common type is the mucinous type which comprises endocervical, intestinal and gastric subtypes. The great majority of endocervical-type adenocarcinomas are architecturally well differentiated, but they are cytologically grade 2 or 3. Only a subset of papillary or villoglandular adenocarcinoma is considered well differentiated for their good prognosis when in pure form; tumours with an underlying component of conventional adenocarcinoma behave as adenocarcinomas of the usual type. Unlike cervical squamous cell carcinomas, differential diagnosis of early invasive adenocarcinoma from adenocarcinoma in situ showing somewhat complex architecture can be difficult. In mucinous adenocarcinoma mucin-rich cells predominate; some show gastric-type features and some are of the minimal deviation type (or adenoma malignum). Rare tumours are mixed adenosquamous carcinomas and include the so-called glassy cell carcinoma. The other rarer types of cervical adenocarcinoma include clear-cell carcinoma and mesonephric adenocarcinoma. Neuroendocrine tumours include carcinoids, atypical carcinoids and neuroendocrine carcinomas. Diagnosis is histological and can be confirmed by neuroendocrine markers. HPV has been recognised as the most important aetiological factor in cervical cancer. HPV 16/18 account for at least two-thirds of cervical carcinomas in all continents; HPV 31, 33, 35, 45, 52 and 58 are the next most common types of cancers globally. HPV vaccines have a great impact on cervical cancer and HPV-associated cancers in males and females, thus leading to an annual reduction of 90% of cervical cancer, 85% of vaginal cancer HPV correlates, 87% of vulvar cancer HPV correlates, 92% of anal cancer HPV correlates and 85% of penile cancer HPV correlates [11.Serrano B. de Sanjosé S. Tous S. et al.Human papillomavirus genotype attribution for HPVs 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52 and 58 in female anogenital lesions.Eur J Cancer. 2015; 51: 1732-1741Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (149) Google Scholar, 12.Alemany L. Cubilla A. Halec G. et al.Role of human papillomavirus in penile carcinomas worldwide.Eur Urol. 2016; 69: 953-961Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (173) Google Scholar, 13.Alemany L. Saunier M. Alvarado-Cabrero I. et al.Human papillomavirus DNA prevalence and type distribution in anal carcinomas worldwide.Int J Cancer. 2015; 136: 98-107Crossref PubMed Scopus (255) Google Scholar]. Squamous cell carcinomas and their precursor, intraepithelial squamous lesions, are related to HPV infection in almost all cases and the presence of HPV 16 DNA is associated with poor prognosis. Adenocarcinomas encompass a heterogeneous group of tumours. Endocervical adenocarcinoma of usual type and its precursor, the adenocarcinoma in situ, have been shown to be positive for HPV in nearly 90% and 100% of cases, respectively. HPV 18 is more common in adenocarcinomas and adenosquamous carcinomas than in squamous cell carcinomas. Unlike endocervical adenocarcinoma of usual type, the other rarer types including clear-cell and mesonephric adenocarcinoma seem to be unrelated to HPV. Cervical tumours are staged using the Féderation Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO) and the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) TNM staging classifications (8th edition) shown in Table 2. Cervical cancer is the only gynaecological cancer that is clinically staged based on tumour size, vaginal or parametrial involvement, bladder/rectum extension and distant metastases. It requires examination under anaesthesia, radiological imaging such as chest X-ray and intravenous pyelogram. These have been widely replaced by more timely diagnostic tools. Other imaging studies are used routinely to more accurately define the extent of disease and to allow tailoring of treatment, but do not affect the clinical stage. Computed tomography (CT) can detect pathological lymph nodes, while magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can determine tumour size, degree of stromal penetrations, parametrial involvement, vaginal extension and corpus extension with high accuracy [14.Wagenaar H.C. Trimos J.B. Postema S. et al.Tumor diameter and volume assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in the prediction of outcome for invasive cervical cancer.Gynecol Oncol. 2001; 82: 474-482Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar]. More recently, positron emission tomography (PET) has been seen to have the potential to accurately delineate the extent of disease, particularly in lymph nodes that are not macroscopically enlarged and in distant sites, with high sensitivity and specificity. In early-stage disease, PET/CT has a sensitivity of 53%–73% and specificity of 90%–97% for the detection of lymph node involvement, while in more advanced stages the sensitivity for detecting the involvement of para-aortic nodes increases to 75% with 95% specificity [15.Patel C.N. Nazir S.A. Khan Z. et al.18F-FDG PET/CT of cervical carcinoma.AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2011; 196: 1225-1233Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar]. The need for pretreatment surgical para-aortic lymph node assessment in locally advanced cervical cancer (LACC) is still a matter of debate [16.Brockbank E. Kokka F. Bryant A. et al.Pre-treatment surgical para-aortic lymph node assessment in locally advanced cervical cancer.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011; 4: CD008217.Google Scholar].Table 2The staging of cervical tumours is by the Féderation Internationale de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique (FIGO) and TNM classification (Union for International Cancer Control) [61.TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours.in: James D. Brierley J.D. Gospodarowicz M.K. 8th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Oxford, UK2016Google Scholar]Reprinted from [61] with permission from John Wiley & Sons, Inc.TNM clinical classificationTNM categoriesFIGO stagesDefinitionT – Primary TumourTXPrimary tumour cannot be assessedT0No evidence of primary tumourTisCarcinoma in situ (preinvasive carcinoma)T1ITumour confined to the cervixaExtension to corpus uteri should be disregarded.T1ab,The depth of invasion should be taken from the base of the epithelium, either surface or glandular, from which it originates. The depth of invasion is defined as the measurement of the tumour from the epithelial–stromal junction of the adjacent most superficial papillae to the deepest point of invasion. Vascular space involvement, venous or lymphatic, does not affect classification.cAll macroscopically visible lesions even with superficial invasion are T1b/IB.IAInvasive carcinoma diagnosed only by microscopy. Stromal invasion with a maximal depth of 5.0 mm measured from the base of the epithelium and a horizontal spread of 7.0 mm or lessdVascular space involvement, venous or lymphatic, does not affect classification.T1a1IA1Measured stromal invasion 3.0 mm or less in depth and 7.0 mm or less in horizontal spreadT1a2IA2Measured stromal invasion more than 3.0 mm and not more than 5.0 mm with a horizontal spread of 7.0 mm or lessdVascular space involvement, venous or lymphatic, does not affect classification.T1bIBClinically visible lesion confined to the cervix or microscopic lesion greater than T1a/IA2T1b1IB1Clinically visible lesion 4.0 cm or less in greatest dimensionT1b2IB2Clinically visible lesion more than 4.0 cm in greatest dimensionT2IITumour invades beyond uterus but not to pelvic wall or to lower third of vaginaT2aIIATumour without parametrial invasionT2a1IIA1Clinically visible lesion 4.0 cm or less in greatest dimensionT2a2IIA2Clinically visible lesion more than 4.0 cm in greatest dimensionT2bIIBTumour with parametrial invasionT3IIITumour involves lower third of vagina, or extends to pelvic wall, or causes hydronephrosis or non‐functioning kidneyT3aIIIATumour involves lower third of vaginaT3bIIIBTumour extends to pelvic wall, or causes hydronephrosis or non‐functioning kidneyT4IVATumour invades mucosa of the bladder or rectum, or extends beyond true pelviseBullous oedema is not sufficient to classify a tumour as T4.N – Regional Lymph NodesfNo FIGO equivalent. TNM, tumour, node and metastasis.NXRegional lymph nodes cannot be assessedN0No regional lymph node metastasisN1Regional lymph node metastasisM – Distant MetastasisfNo FIGO equivalent. TNM, tumour, node and metastasis.M0No distant metastasisM1Distant metastasis (includes inguinal lymph nodes and intraperitoneal disease). It excludes metastasis to vagina, pelvic serosa, and adnexaa Extension to corpus uteri should be disregarded.b The depth of invasion should be taken from the base of the epithelium, either surface or glandular, from which it originates. The depth of invasion is defined as the measurement of the tumour from the epithelial–stromal junction of the adjacent most superficial papillae to the deepest point of invasion. Vascular space involvement, venous or lymphatic, does not affect classification.c All macroscopically visible lesions even with superficial invasion are T1b/IB.d Vascular space involvement, venous or lymphatic, does not affect classification.e Bullous oedema is not sufficient to classify a tumour as T4.f No FIGO equivalent. TNM, tumour, node and metastasis. Open table in a new tab Tumour risk assessment includes tumour size, stage, depth of tumour invasion, lymph node status, lymphovascular space invasion (LVSI) and histological subtype. Lymph node status and number of lymph nodes involved are the most important prognostic factors. In stages IB–IIA, the 5-year survival rates without lymph node metastasis and with lymph node metastasis are 88%–95% and 51%–78%, respectively [17.Kim S.M. Choi H.S. Byun J.S. Overall 5-year survival rate and prognostic factors in patients with stage IB and IIA cervical cancer treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection.Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2000; 10: 305-312Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar]. Controversy exists as to whether histological type is an independent prognostic factor for survival. Although some studies have shown no differences in survival between adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma, the majority have shown that adenocarcinoma carries a worse prognosis with 10%–20% differences in 5-year overall survival (OS) rates. Cervical small-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma is a rare disease, accounting for only up to 2% of all invasive cervical cancers but has a particular propensity to spread distantly, which is similar to small-cell carcinoma of the lung. As a result, patients can present with systemic symptoms such as weight loss. In addition, patients may present with a paraneoplastic syndrome such as the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), Cushing syndrome, hypercalcaemia or a neurological disorder. The most commonly involved organs include the liver, adrenals, bone, bone marrow and the brain. Surgical therapy in cervical cancer is adapted to the stage of disease according to FIGO and TNM classification (Table 2). Microinvasive cervical cancer (stage IA1) without LVSI can be managed with conisation or simple trachelectomy to preserve fertility [I, B] [18.Dittrich R. Lotz L. Hackl J. et al.Fertilitätserhalt bei Krebserkrankungen.Frauenarzt. 2014; 55: 240-246Google Scholar]. Simple hysterectomy can be offered if the patient does not wish to preserve fertility. In stage IA1 with LVSI, surgical assessment of pelvic lymph nodes should be discussed with the patient, including the sentinel lymph node (SLN, see below). In patients with FIGO stage IA2, IB and IIA, radical hysterectomy with bilateral lymph node dissection (with or without SLN) is standard treatment, if the patient does not wish to preserve fertility [I, B]. This can be carried out either by laparotomy or laparoscopy (which can be robotically assisted). The minimally invasive approach is gaining increasing relevance and is standard in most centres, since it appears to offer similar oncological safety with favourable surgical morbidity [19.Geetha P. Nair M.K. Laparoscopic, robotic and open method of radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer: a systematic review.J Min Access Surg. 2012; 8: 67-73Crossref PubMed Scopus (52) Google Scholar]. SLN dissection (SLND) is standard in the treatment of breast cancer as well as vulvar cancer and increasing evidence also suggests an important role for SLND in cervical cancer. While the evidence is still evolving and guideline recommendations are not yet clearly defined, it should be considered in FIGO stage I patients with tumours of ≤ 4 cm. Some evidence suggests that the detection rate is highest if the tumour is < 2 cm. Tracer is injected directly into the cervix, and blue dye, technetium radiocolloid or fluorescent indocyanine green is used. SLND should be done only in centres with enough expertise and training. Sentinel nodes should be detected on both sides [II, B] [20.Diab Y. Sentinel lymph nodes mapping in cervical cancer a comprehensive review.Int J Gynecol Cancer. 2017; 27: 154-158Crossref PubMed Scopus (32) Google Scholar]. Since radiotherapy (RT) and surgery are equally effective in early stages, surgery should only be considered in patients with earlier stages (up to FIGO IIA) without risk factors necessitating adjuvant therapy, which results in a multimodal therapy without improvement of survival but increased toxicity [I, A]. It is important to note that the currently established radical hysterectomy with extensive parametrial resection most likely constitutes overtreatment in many patients, especially those with small and locally restricted tumours. Large randomised studies such as the SHAPE study are currently enrolling patients to compare simple hysterectomy with radical hysterectomy in this population [21.Canadian Cancer Trials Group. Radical versus simple hysterectomy and pelvic node dissection in patients with low-risk early stage cervical cancer (SHAPE). https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01658930 (29 April 2017, date last accessed).Google Scholar]. The rationale for the use of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) includes: (i) reduction of the primary tumour size, allowing operability; (ii) eradication of micrometastatic disease; and (iii) potential increase in tumour vascularisation and reduction of the number of hypoxic cells [22.Benedetti-Panici P. Greggi S. Scambia G. et al.Long-term survival following neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radical surgery in locally advanced cervical cancer.Eur J Cancer. 1998; 34: 341-346Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 23.Sardi J.E. di Paola G.R. Cachau A. et al.A possible new trend in the management of the carcinoma of the cervix uteri.Gynecol Oncol. 1986; 25: 139-149Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar, 24.Paladini D. Raspagliesi F. Fontanelli R. Ntousias V. Radical surgery after induction chemotherapy in locally advanced cervical cancer. A Feasibility Study.Int J Gynecol Cancer. 1995; 5: 296-300Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar]. In a meta-analysis, NACT followed by radical surgery showed a highly significant 35% reduction in the risk of death compared with RT alone [hazard ratio (HR) = 0.65; P = 0.0004], with an absolute improvement of 14% in survival at 5 years, increasing from 50% to 64% [25.Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy for Locally Advanced Cervical Cancer Meta-analysis Collaboration Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for locally advanced cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data from 21 randomised trials.Eur J Cancer. 2003; 39: 2470-2486Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (293) Google Scholar]. The analysis included data from 872 patients with LACC enrolled in five different trials. The largest trial included in a second meta-analysis, enrolled 441 FIGO stage IB2–III cervical cancer patients and compared platinum-based NACT followed by radical surgery with conventional RT. The main criticism of this study is related to the suboptimal RT administration; almost 27% of patients did not receive intracavitary RT; 11% of patients received less than 60 Gy of external pelvic beam radiation total dose at point A and the median total dose delivered was 70 Gy, while the optimal treatment is considered to be 80–90 Gy at point A. Moreover, in all of these studies, the control arm, RT alone without concomitant chemotherapy, does not represent the current standard of care for LACC. In addition, the RT total dose and the median time of RT administration were sometimes suboptimal. There are two randomised phase III trials that have explored the role of NACT followed by surgery versus chemoradiotherapy (CRT), but the results are not yet available (EORTC Protocol 55994 and NCT00193739) [26.European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer – EORTC. Chemotherapy followed by surgery vs radiotherapy plus chemotherapy in patients with stage Ib or II cervical cancer. EORTC Protocol 55994. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00039338 (29 April 2017, date last accessed).Google Scholar, 27.S.Gupta Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by surgery versus concurrent chemoradiation in carcinoma of the cervix (NACTcervix). NCT00193739. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00193739 NCT00193739 https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00193739 (29 April 2017, date last accessed).Google Scholar]. Moreover, a recent meta-analysis comparing NACT followed by surgery versus surgery alone confirmed that patients treated with NACT had higher local control [odds ratio (OR) = 0.67; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.45–0.99; P = 0.04)] [28.Rydzewska L. Tierney J. Vale C.L. Symonds P.R. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy plus surgery versus surgery for cervical cancer.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012; 12: CD007406.PubMed Google Scholar]. Exploratory analysis of pathological response showed a significant decrease in adverse pathological findings with NACT (OR = 0.54; P < 0.0001 for lymph node status; OR = 0.58; P = 0.002 for parametrial infiltration). However, a significant percentage of patients will not have surgery because of treatment toxicity or insufficient response. These results indicate that NACT may offer a benefit over surgery alone in cervical cancer patients (borderline LACC, nodes positive, parametrial invasion at MRI), reducing the need for adjuvant RT [I, C]. CRT has been the standard of care for patients with bulky IB2–IVA disease for almost two decades. The near simultaneous publication of five randomised trials, three in LACC, collectively demonstrating an improvement in both disease-free survival (DFS) and OS with concomitant chemotherapy and RT over standa