BackgroundFluid and vasopressor management in septic shock remains controversial. In this randomized controlled trial, we evaluated the efficacy of dynamic measures (stroke volume change during passive leg raise) to guide resuscitation and improve patient outcome.Research QuestionWill resuscitation that is guided by dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness in patients with septic shock improve patient outcomes?Study Design and MethodsWe conducted a prospective, multicenter, randomized clinical trial at 13 hospitals in the United States and United Kingdom. Patients presented to EDs with sepsis that was associated hypotension and anticipated ICU admission. Intervention arm patients were assessed for fluid responsiveness before clinically driven fluid bolus or increase in vasopressors occurred. The protocol included reassessment and therapy as indicated by the passive leg raise result. The control arm received usual care. The primary clinical outcome was positive fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge, whichever occurred first.ResultsIn modified intent-to-treat analysis that included 83 intervention and 41 usual care eligible patients, fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge was significantly lower (−1.37 L favoring the intervention arm; 0.65 ± 2.85 L intervention arm vs 2.02 ± 3.44 L usual care arm; P = .021. Fewer patients required renal replacement therapy (5.1% vs 17.5%; P = .04) or mechanical ventilation (17.7% vs 34.1%; P = .04) in the intervention arm compared with usual care. In the all-randomized intent-to-treat population (102 intervention, 48 usual care), there were no significant differences in safety signals.InterpretationPhysiologically informed fluid and vasopressor resuscitation with the use of the passive leg raise-induced stroke volume change to guide management of septic shock is safe and demonstrated lower net fluid balance and reductions in the risk of renal and respiratory failure. Dynamic assessments to guide fluid administration may improve outcomes for patients with septic shock compared with usual care.Clinical Trial RegistrationNCT02837731; Fluid and vasopressor management in septic shock remains controversial. In this randomized controlled trial, we evaluated the efficacy of dynamic measures (stroke volume change during passive leg raise) to guide resuscitation and improve patient outcome. Will resuscitation that is guided by dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness in patients with septic shock improve patient outcomes? We conducted a prospective, multicenter, randomized clinical trial at 13 hospitals in the United States and United Kingdom. Patients presented to EDs with sepsis that was associated hypotension and anticipated ICU admission. Intervention arm patients were assessed for fluid responsiveness before clinically driven fluid bolus or increase in vasopressors occurred. The protocol included reassessment and therapy as indicated by the passive leg raise result. The control arm received usual care. The primary clinical outcome was positive fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge, whichever occurred first. In modified intent-to-treat analysis that included 83 intervention and 41 usual care eligible patients, fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge was significantly lower (−1.37 L favoring the intervention arm; 0.65 ± 2.85 L intervention arm vs 2.02 ± 3.44 L usual care arm; P = .021. Fewer patients required renal replacement therapy (5.1% vs 17.5%; P = .04) or mechanical ventilation (17.7% vs 34.1%; P = .04) in the intervention arm compared with usual care. In the all-randomized intent-to-treat population (102 intervention, 48 usual care), there were no significant differences in safety signals. Physiologically informed fluid and vasopressor resuscitation with the use of the passive leg raise-induced stroke volume change to guide management of septic shock is safe and demonstrated lower net fluid balance and reductions in the risk of renal and respiratory failure. Dynamic assessments to guide fluid administration may improve outcomes for patients with septic shock compared with usual care. NCT02837731; FOR EDITORIAL COMMENT, SEE PAGE 1319Fluid resuscitation is a central component of septic shock treatment.1Levy M.M. Evans L.E. Rhodes A. The surviving sepsis campaign bundle: 2018 update.Crit Care Med. 2018; 46: 997-1000Crossref PubMed Scopus (395) Google Scholar,2Singer M. Deutschman C.S. Seymour C.W. et al.The third international consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (sepsis-3).JAMA. 2016; 315: 801-810Crossref PubMed Scopus (11873) Google Scholar Excessive fluid administration causes hypervolemia and is associated with tissue edema, organ dysfunction, increased ICU length of stay, prolonged ventilator dependence,3Brotfain E. Koyfman L. Toledano R. et al.Positive fluid balance as a major predictor of clinical outcome of patients with sepsis/septic shock after ICU discharge.Am J Emerg Med. 2016; 34: 2122-2126Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar, 4Mitchell K.H. Carlbom D. Caldwell E. et al.Volume overload: prevalence, risk factors, and functional outcome in survivors of septic shock.Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2015; 12: 1837-1844Crossref PubMed Scopus (64) Google Scholar, 5Wiedemann H.P. 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Russell J.A. Fluid resuscitation in septic shock: a positive fluid balance and elevated central venous pressure are associated with increased mortality.Crit Care Med. 2011; 39: 259-265Crossref PubMed Scopus (1013) Google Scholar, 10Vincent J.L. Sakr Y. Sprung C.L. et al.Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study.Crit Care Med. 2006; 34: 344-353Crossref PubMed Scopus (2040) Google Scholar Guidelines recommend crystalloid fluid administration of at least 30 mL/kg for sepsis-induced tissue hypoperfusion or septic shock and suggest that “fluid administration beyond initial resuscitation requires careful assessment of the likelihood that the patient remains fluid responsive.”11Rhodes A. Evans L.E. Alhazzani W. et al.Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2016.Intensive Care Med. 2017; 43: 304-377Crossref PubMed Scopus (3674) Google Scholar Robust evidence that supports this recommendation is lacking. Two-thirds of patients with septic shock demonstrate fluid overload on day 1, and fluid resuscitation often continues beyond the first day of care.9Boyd J.H. Forbes J. Nakada T.A. Walley K.R. Russell J.A. Fluid resuscitation in septic shock: a positive fluid balance and elevated central venous pressure are associated with increased mortality.Crit Care Med. 2011; 39: 259-265Crossref PubMed Scopus (1013) Google Scholar, 10Vincent J.L. Sakr Y. Sprung C.L. et al.Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study.Crit Care Med. 2006; 34: 344-353Crossref PubMed Scopus (2040) Google Scholar, 11Rhodes A. Evans L.E. Alhazzani W. et al.Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock: 2016.Intensive Care Med. 2017; 43: 304-377Crossref PubMed Scopus (3674) Google Scholar, 12Kelm D.J. Perrin J.T. 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Does the central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? an updated meta-analysis and a plea for some common sense.Crit Care Med. 2013; 41: 1774-1781Crossref PubMed Scopus (529) Google Scholar However, only one-half of septic patients will be fluid responsive and potentially benefit from fluid administration.17Bentzer P. Griesdale D.E. Boyd J. et al.Will this hemodynamically unstable patient respond to a bolus of intravenous fluids?.JAMA. 2016; 316: 1298-1309Crossref PubMed Scopus (145) Google Scholar, 18Marik P.E. Levitov A. Young A. Andrews L. The use of bioreactance and carotid Doppler to determine volume responsiveness and blood flow redistribution following passive leg raising in hemodynamically unstable patients.Chest. 2013; 143: 364-370Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar, 19Michard F. Teboul J.L. Predicting fluid responsiveness in ICU patients: a critical analysis of the evidence.Chest. 2002; 121: 2000-2008Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (989) Google Scholar, 20Monnet X. Marik P. Teboul J.L. Passive leg raising for predicting fluid responsiveness: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Intensive Care Med. 2016; 42: 1935-1947Crossref PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar A propensity model analysis of 23,513 patients with sepsis demonstrated that day 1 fluid administration >5 L was associated with significantly increased risk of death.8Marik P.E. Linde-Zwirble W.T. Bittner E.A. Sahatjian J. Hansell D. Fluid administration in severe sepsis and septic shock, patterns and outcomes: an analysis of a large national database.Intensive Care Med. 2017; 43: 625-632Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google ScholarTake-home PointsStudy QuestionWill resuscitation guided by dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness in patients with septic shock improve patient outcomes?ResultsIn this multicenter randomized controlled trial of 124 patients with septic shock, treatment that was guided by a dynamic assessment of fluid responsiveness (passive leg raise) compared with usual care resulted in a decreased fluid balance (0.65 L vs 2.02 L). Fewer patients required renal replacement therapy (5.1% vs 17.5%) or mechanical ventilation (17.7% vs 34.1%), and patients were more likely to be discharged home alive (63.9% compared with 43.9%).InterpretationPersonalized, dynamic fluid responsiveness monitoring enhances appropriate resuscitation fluid and vasopressors administration and improves patient outcomes. FOR EDITORIAL COMMENT, SEE PAGE 1319 Will resuscitation guided by dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness in patients with septic shock improve patient outcomes? In this multicenter randomized controlled trial of 124 patients with septic shock, treatment that was guided by a dynamic assessment of fluid responsiveness (passive leg raise) compared with usual care resulted in a decreased fluid balance (0.65 L vs 2.02 L). Fewer patients required renal replacement therapy (5.1% vs 17.5%) or mechanical ventilation (17.7% vs 34.1%), and patients were more likely to be discharged home alive (63.9% compared with 43.9%). Personalized, dynamic fluid responsiveness monitoring enhances appropriate resuscitation fluid and vasopressors administration and improves patient outcomes. Traditional methods of the assessment of fluid responsiveness (FR) such as vital signs, physical examination,21Wo C.C. Shoemaker W.C. Appel P.L. et al.Unreliability of blood pressure and heart rate to evaluate cardiac output in emergency resuscitation and critical illness.Crit Care Med. 1993; 21: 218-223Crossref PubMed Scopus (250) Google Scholar and static measurements of circulatory pressure do not reliably correlate with FR.16Marik P.E. Cavallazzi R. Does the central venous pressure predict fluid responsiveness? an updated meta-analysis and a plea for some common sense.Crit Care Med. 2013; 41: 1774-1781Crossref PubMed Scopus (529) Google Scholar In contrast, dynamic measurement of stroke volume (SV) after an IV fluid bolus or passive leg raise (PLR) is a safe and feasible method of rapidly assessing the effectiveness of fluid-induced augmentation of SV and cardiac output (CO).18Marik P.E. Levitov A. Young A. Andrews L. The use of bioreactance and carotid Doppler to determine volume responsiveness and blood flow redistribution following passive leg raising in hemodynamically unstable patients.Chest. 2013; 143: 364-370Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar,20Monnet X. Marik P. Teboul J.L. Passive leg raising for predicting fluid responsiveness: a systematic review and meta-analysis.Intensive Care Med. 2016; 42: 1935-1947Crossref PubMed Scopus (188) Google Scholar,22Toppen W, Aquije Montoya E, Ong S, et al. Passive leg raise: feasibility and safety of the maneuver in patients with undifferentiated shock. J Intensive Care Med. 2018;885066618820492.Google Scholar, 23Latham H.E. Bengtson C.D. Satterwhite L. et al.Stroke volume guided resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock improves outcomes.J Crit Care. 2017; 42: 42-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 24Krige A. Bland M. Fanshawe T. Fluid responsiveness prediction using Vigileo FloTrac measured cardiac output changes during passive leg raise test.J Intensive Care. 2016; 4: 63Crossref PubMed Scopus (16) Google Scholar This approach has been associated with reduced length of stay, fewer postoperative complications, and earlier return to regular diet in surgical patients.25Calvo-Vecino J.M. Ripolles-Melchor J. Mythen M.G. et al.Effect of goal-directed haemodynamic therapy on postoperative complications in low-moderate risk surgical patients: a multicentre randomised controlled trial (FEDORA trial).Br J Anaesth. 2018; 120: 734-744Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (85) Google Scholar A retrospective study of real-time, noninvasive bioreactance SV and cardiac performance measurements incorporated PLR to assess FR and guide resuscitation in patients with septic shock in an ICU.23Latham H.E. Bengtson C.D. Satterwhite L. et al.Stroke volume guided resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock improves outcomes.J Crit Care. 2017; 42: 42-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar Bioreactance analyzes the relative phase shift of an oscillating current passing through the thoracic cavity.26Keren H. Burkhoff D. Squara P. Evaluation of a noninvasive continuous cardiac output monitoring system based on thoracic bioreactance.Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2007; 293: H583-H589Crossref PubMed Scopus (236) Google Scholar, 27Heerdt P.M. Wagner C.L. DeMais M. Savarese J.J. Noninvasive cardiac output monitoring with bioreactance as an alternative to invasive instrumentation for preclinical drug evaluation in beagles.J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 2011; 64: 111-118Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar, 28Rich J.D. Archer S.L. Rich S. Noninvasive cardiac output measurements in patients with pulmonary hypertension.Eur Respir J. 2013; 42: 125-133Crossref PubMed Scopus (51) Google Scholar, 29Raval N.Y. Squara P. Cleman M. et al.Multicenter evaluation of noninvasive cardiac output measurement by bioreactance technique.J Clin Monit Comput. 2008; 22: 113-119Crossref PubMed Scopus (176) Google Scholar, 30Squara P. Denjean D. Estagnasie P. et al.Noninvasive cardiac output monitoring (NICOM): a clinical validation.Intensive Care Med. 2007; 33: 1191-1194Crossref PubMed Scopus (251) Google Scholar Dynamic SV-guided resuscitation was associated with decreased net fluid balance, reduced ICU length of stay, risk of mechanical ventilation, time on vasopressors, and risk of renal replacement therapy (RRT) initiation.23Latham H.E. Bengtson C.D. Satterwhite L. et al.Stroke volume guided resuscitation in severe sepsis and septic shock improves outcomes.J Crit Care. 2017; 42: 42-46Crossref PubMed Scopus (24) Google Scholar Given the uncertainty surrounding the benefits of dynamic measure-guided fluid resuscitation, we designed the Fluid Responsiveness Evaluation in Sepsis-associated Hypotension (FRESH) Trial (NCT02837731). The primary objective was to determine if SV-guided dynamic assessment could guide the amount of IV fluid administered to patients with septic shock. We conducted a randomized unblinded clinical trial among adults with sepsis-associated hypotension to compare PLR-guided SV responsiveness as a guide for fluid management (intervention) vs usual care at 13 hospitals in the United States and the United Kingdom. A full description of how patients were assigned randomly is provided in the supplementary material (e-Appendix 1). We screened patients presenting to the ED with sepsis or septic shock (defined as ≥2 systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria and a suspected or documented infection) and anticipated ICU admission. Other inclusion criteria included refractory hypotension, (mean arterial pressure ≤ 65 mm Hg after receiving ≥1 L and <3 L of fluid) and enrollment within 24 hours of hospital arrival (e-Appendix 2). Major exclusion criteria included infusion of >3 L of IV fluid before random assignment, active “do not resuscitate” order, hemodynamic instability due to active hemorrhage, transferred from another hospital, acute cerebral vascular event, acute coronary syndrome, acute pulmonary edema, status asthmaticus, major cardiac arrhythmia, drug overdose, injury from burn or trauma, status epilepticus, indication for immediate surgery, inability or contraindication to PLR, pregnancy, or being incarcerated. Patient race and ethnicity were included as demographic variables per standard study design and were determined for each patient by medical chart review. Randomization was in a 2:1 allocation of SV-guided to usual care. After enrollment and initial treatment in the ED, care was transferred to the ICU team per usual institutional practice. The remainder of sepsis care, including source control and antibiotic selection, was at the discretion of the treating clinicians. In the intervention arm, PLRs were performed before any treatment of hypoperfusion with either fluid bolus or vasopressors for the first 72 hours of ICU admission. SV-guided fluid and vasopressor management was used continuously during the intervention period (72 hours or ICU discharge, whichever occurred first). An increase in SV ≥10% was considered FR. If the patient demonstrated FR, protocol prompts were provided to administer a crystalloid fluid bolus (500 mL) for persistent hypotension, with repeat PLRs after every fluid bolus. If the patient was not FR, the initiation or up-titration of vasopressors was prompted with repeat PLRs after significant escalation (an increase of 1 μg/kg/min norepinephrine). In this manner, the protocol allowed for the physiologic titration of both fluid and vasopressors to treat hypoperfusion (Fig 1). Details of fluid volume collection and assessment are detailed in e-Appendix 3. This study was conducted in accordance with the amended Declaration of Helsinki. The study protocol was approved by site-specific institutional review boards. All patients or their surrogates provided written informed consent before enrollment and random assignment. The primary end point was the difference in positive fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge, whichever occurred first. Additional predefined secondary end points were a new requirement for RRT, a new requirement for mechanical ventilation, length of ICU stay, hours of ventilator use over a 30-day period, hours with vasopressor use, and change from baseline serum creatinine. Additional exploratory secondary end points included the incidence of adverse events, number of ICU readmissions, mortality rate, volume of treatment fluid, incidence of major cardiovascular end points (cardiovascular death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke termed 3P- major adverse cardiac event [MACE]), discharge location, and mean difference in total fluid balance (including preenrollment) at 72 hours or ICU discharge. Sample size calculations are detailed in supplemental material, and statistical analyses were performed according to a prespecified Statistical Analysis Plan filed with an independent statistician (e-Appendix 4). The intent-to-treat (ITT) population included all patients who signed a consent form, who met study eligibility criteria, and who were assigned randomly. The modified intent-to-treat (mITT) population was predefined to include all patients who signed consent, met study eligibility criteria, who were assigned randomly, and who received monitoring for 72 hours or ICU discharge if earlier. After 90 evaluable patients had been enrolled, a predefined interim analysis was conducted by the independent statistician. A sample size reestimation was performed on the mITT population to determine promise for superiority in the key secondary end point with the option to increase the sample size of the trial to the maximum of 210 patients. The primary end point was not tested at interim analysis and was tested only at the planned final sample size of 120 patients. Under an assumption of an average treatment effect of −2 L with a SD of 3 L, the sample size of 120 evaluable subjects provided 92.7% power in a test of superiority of means for the primary effectiveness end point at a two-sided .05 level of significance. In the event of a sample size reestimation due to the key secondary end point, the primary end point was planned to be tested both at 120 patients and again at the final sample size. No alpha-adjustment was needed across this potential multiple testing, according to the methods of Mehta and Pocock.31Mehta C.R. Pocock S.J. Adaptive increase in sample size when interim results are promising: a practical guide with examples.Stat Med. 2011; 30: 3267-3284Crossref PubMed Scopus (195) Google Scholar Multiple imputation was performed for missing variables as prespecified in the Statistical Analysis Plan. Multiple imputation for missing fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge was conducted with the use of fully conditional specification with linear regression. The imputation model that was adjusted for baseline demographic variables included treatment group, age, sex, ethnicity, race, number of SIRS criteria exhibited, height, weight, and quick sepsis-related organ failure assessment (qSOFA). All efficacy analyses were performed on the mITT population, and safety analyses were performed on the ITT population. To minimize multiplicity risk, the predefined secondary end points were tested hierarchically in order on the mITT with each subsequent end points being tested only if the former demonstrated significance at a two-sided probability value of <.05. Analyses were performed using SAS software (version 9.4; Boston Biomedical Associates, LLC, Boston MA). This study was conducted in accordance with the amended Declaration of Helsinki. All patients or their surrogates provided written informed consent before enrollment and random assignment (e-Appendix 5). The study protocol was approved by the site-specific institutional review boards (e-Appendix 6). All versions of the study protocol, statistics plan, and a summary of changes are detailed (e-Appendix 7). From October 2016 to February 2019, we enrolled and randomly assigned 150 patients in the study across 13 sites (Fig 2). No participants were lost to follow up. Based on the prespecified conditional power analysis on the mITT population that had been performed by an independent statistician at the 90 patient interim analysis, approval was granted to continue enrollment and to increase the sample size to a maximum of 210 patients. However, at the planned primary end point analysis at 120 patients, the primary end point had crossed the threshold for statistical significance, and enrollment was closed. An assessment of the equality of variances was performed before the statistical analysis and was found to be insignificant. A Student t-test assuming equal variance was used for the primary end point analysis. One hundred twenty-four patients met the prespecified criteria for the mITT population. The mean patient age was 62.1 years (61.8 years in the intervention arm and 62.7 years in the usual care arm). Mean qSOFA score (intervention 1.9 ± 0.7 vs usual care 2.1 ± 0.7), number of SIRS criteria present on admission (intervention 2.7 ± 0.7 vs usual care 2.8 ± 0.8), and baseline comorbid medical conditions were similar between the two arms. There were relatively more women in the intervention arm than in the usual care arm (61.4% vs 31.7%). Race and ethnicity were balanced evenly between the two study arms (Table 1; e-Tables 1 and 2). Both arms received a similar volume of resuscitation fluid before enrollment (intervention arm 2.4 ± 0.6 L compared with usual care arm 2.2 ± 0.7 L) (Table 2). Positive fluid balance at 72 hours or ICU discharge was significantly less in the intervention arm (-1.37 L that favored the intervention arm, 0.65 ± 2.85 L [median, 0.53 L] vs the usual care arm, 2.02 ± 3.44 L [median, 1.22 L; P = .02) (Table 3).Table 1Study DemographicsVariableaSubject demographics and baseline characteristics are summarized for all patients in the intent-to-treat group with available data, excluding 4 subjects with randomization error.Modified Intent-to-Treat PopulationIntervention (N = 83)Usual care (N = 41)Age, y Mean ± SD (No.)61.8 ± 16.9 (83)62.7 ± 15.0 (41) Median (Q1, Q3)65.0 (48.0, 75.0)63.0 (55.0, 74.0)Sex,bP = .001 for the intent-to-treat patients; there were no other statistically significant (P < .05) differences between study groups. % (n/N) Female61.4 (51/83)31.7 (13/41) Male38.6 (32/83)68.3 (28/41)Ethnicity, % (n/N) Not Hispanic or Latino80.7 (67/83)85.4 (35/41) Hispanic or Latino19.3 (16/83)12.2 (5/41) Unknown02.4 (1/41)Race, % (n/N) White73.5 (61/83)75.6 (31/41) Black20.5 (17/83)22.0 (9/41) Asian3.6 (3/83)2.4 (1/41) Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander1.2 (1/83)0 American Indian or Alaska Native00 Other1.2 (1/83)0 Unknown00Known or presumed infection, % (n/N)100.0 (83/83)100.0 (41/41)Systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria exhibitedcSubjects may meet >1 criteria. Mean ± SD (No.)2.7 ± 0.7 (83)2.8 ± 0.8 (41) Median (Q1, Q3)3.0 (2.0, 3.0)3.0 (2.0, 3.0)Height, cm Mean ± SD (No.)165.3 ± 10.1 (83)168.7 ± 11.7 (39) Median (Q1, Q3)165.0 (158.8, 172.0)171.4 (163.8, 175.3)Weight, kg Mean ± SD (No.)73.7 ± 18.7 (83)73.6 ± 18.5 (41) Median (Q1, Q3)73.1 (60.0, 85.0)70.2 (63.5, 81.7)BMI, kg/m2 Mean ± SD (No.)26.6 ± 5.7 (83)25.3 ± 6.0 (39) Median (Q1, Q3)25.8 (22.4, 30.1)23.3 (22.0, 28.7)Quick sepsis-related organ failure assessment Mean ± SD (No.)1.9 ± 0.7 (82)2.1 ± 0.7 (40) Median (Q1, Q3)2.0 (1.0, 2.0)2.0 (2.0, 3.0)Sepsis diagnosis Bacterial75.9 (63/83)80.5 (33/41) Viral7.2 (6/83)4.9 (2/41) Fungal1.2 (1/83)2.4 (1/41) Other15.7 (13/83)12.2 (5/41) Unknown00Baseline serum lactate Mean ± SD (No.)3.6 ± 3.2 (66)3.8 ± 3.6 (33) Median (Q1, Q3)2.5 (1.6, 3.8)2.0 (1.5, 5.7)Baseline plasma lactate Mean ± SD (No.)3.7 ± 3.2 (16)3.7 ± 3.3 (7) Median (Q1, Q3)2.4 (1.7, 4.7)2.0 (1.4, 5.7)Q = quartile.a Subject demographics and baseline characteristics are summarized for all patients in the intent-to-treat group with available data, excluding 4 subjects with randomization error.b P = .001 for the intent-to-treat patients; there were no other statistically significant (P < .05) differences between study groups.c Subjects may meet >1 criteria. Open table in a new tab Table 2Procedural DetailsEventModified Intent-to-Treat PopulationIntervention (N = 83)Usual care (N = 41)Time from hospital arrival to enrollment, h Mean ± SD (No.)5.2 ± 4.2 (83)4.4 ± 2.8 (41) Median (Q1,Q3)3.6 (2.8, 5.9)3.3 (2.5, 5.5)Fluid: hospital arrival to enrollment, L Mean ± SD (No.)2.4 ± 0.6 (83)2.2 ± 0.7 (41) Median (Q1,Q3)2.5 (2.0, 2.8)2.2 (1.5, 2.5)Time from hospital arrival to Starling monitor application, h Mean ± SD (No.)6.8 ± 4.5 (83)… Median (Q1,Q3)5.6 (4.2, 7.7)…Total fluid assessments, No. Mean ± SD (No.)6.3 ± 4.0 (83)… Median (Q1,Q3)5.0 (3.0, 8.0)…Fluid responsive PLR, % (n/N) PLRs for treatment, No.382…Within first 24 h67.3 (257/382)…Positive PLRs within first 24 h41.6 (107/257)…24 to 48 h, % (n/N)24.1 (92/382)…Positive PLRs within 24 to 48 h43.5 (40/92)…48 to 72 h6.5 (25/382)…Positive PLRs within 48 to 72 h60.0 (15/25)… PLRs for observation only, No.141…Within first 24 h26.2 (37/141)…Positive PLRs within first 24 h37.8 (14/37)…24 to 48 h39.0 (55/141)…Positive PLRs within 24 to 48 h45.5 (25/55)…48 to 72 h27.7 (39/141)…Positive PLRs within 48 to 72 h33.3 (13/39)… Patients with a fluid status change during monitoring period69.9 (58/83)… Patients with positive first PLR assessment42.2 (35/83)… Patients fluid responsive for at least one PLR81.9 (68/83)… Patients fluid responsive at every measurement12.0 (10/83)… Patients never demonstrated fluid responsiveness18.1 (15/83)…PLR = passive leg raise. See Table 1