Oesophageal cancer is the 19th most common cancer in the European Union (EU), with ∼45 900 new cases diagnosed in 2012 (1% of the total). In the EU, the highest age-standardised incidence rates for oesophageal cancer are in the Netherlands for men and the UK for women [1.Ferlay J. Steliarova-Foucher E. Lortet-Tieulent J. et al.Cancer incidence and mortality patterns in Europe: estimates for 40 countries in 2012.Eur J Cancer. 2013; 49: 1374-1403Google Scholar]. Variation between countries is high and may reflect different prevalence of risk factors, use of screening and diagnostic methods. Between 2000–04 and 2005–09, oesophageal cancer mortality declined by 7% (from 5.34 to 4.99/100 000) in EU men, and by 3% (from 1.12 to 1.09/100 000) in EU women. Predictions to 2015 show persistent declines in mortality rates for men in the EU overall and stable rates for EU women, with rates for 2015 of 4.5/100 000 men (∼22 300 deaths) and 1.1/100 000 women (∼7400 deaths). Oesophageal cancer has two main subtypes—oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and oesophageal adenocarcinoma (AC). Although SCC accounts for ∼90% of cases of oesophageal cancer worldwide, mortality rates associated with AC are rising and have surpassed those of SCC in several regions in the EU [2.Castro C. Bosetti C. Malvezzi M. et al.Patterns and trends in esophageal cancer mortality and incidence in Europe (1980–2011) and predictions to 2015.Ann Oncol. 2014; 25: 283-290Google Scholar]. Oesophageal carcinoma is rare in young people and increases in incidence with age, peaking in the seventh and eighth decades of life. AC is three to four times as common in men as it is in women, whereas the sex distribution is more equal for SCC [3.Rustgi A.K. El-Serag H.B. Esophageal carcinoma.N Engl J Med. 2014; 371: 2499-2509Google Scholar]. The main risk factors for SCC in Western countries are smoking and alcohol consumption, whereas AC predominantly occurs in patients with chronic gastro-oesophageal reflux disease and their risk is correlated with the patient's body mass index with a higher risk for obese persons [3.Rustgi A.K. El-Serag H.B. Esophageal carcinoma.N Engl J Med. 2014; 371: 2499-2509Google Scholar, 4.El-Serag H.B. Hashmi A. Garcia J. et al.Visceral abdominal obesity measured by CT scan is associated with an increased risk of Barrett's oesophagus: a case-control study.Gut. 2014; 63: 220-229Google Scholar]. Screening for Barrett's oesophagus, endoscopic surveillance and ablation of precursor lesions are not in the focus of this guideline. We recommend to follow the recently updated guidelines of the American College of Gastroenterology [5.Shaheen N.J. Falk G.W. Iyer P.G. Gerson L.B. ACG clinical guideline: diagnosis and management of Barrett's esophagus.Am J Gastroenterol. 2016; 111: 30-50Google Scholar]. All patients with new dysphagia, gastrointestinal bleeding, recurrent aspiration or emesis, weight loss and/or loss of appetite should undergo an upper intestinal endoscopy [III, A]. Approximately three-quarters of all ACs are found in the distal oesophagus, whereas SCCs occur more frequently in the proximal to middle oesophagus [3.Rustgi A.K. El-Serag H.B. Esophageal carcinoma.N Engl J Med. 2014; 371: 2499-2509Google Scholar]. Biopsies should be taken from all suspect areas. The minimal recommended number of biopsies is not defined. The diagnosis should be made from an endoscopic biopsy with the histology classified according to the World Health Organization (WHO) criteria [6.Hamilton S.R. Aaltonen L.A. World Health Organization Classification of Tumours. Pathology and Genetics of Tumours of the Digestive System. IARC Press, Lyon, France2000Google Scholar]. The differentiation between SCC and AC is of prognostic and clinical relevance. Immunohistochemical stainings are recommended in poorly and undifferentiated cancers (G 3/4) according to WHO to differentiate between SCC and AC [V, B]. Additionally, small cell carcinoma and other rare histologies (endocrine tumours, lymphoma, mesenchymal tumours, secondary tumours and melanoma) must be identified separately from SCC and AC and should be treated accordingly. Decisions on the initial treatment approach of oesophageal cancer are taken on the basis of clinical staging, which should be done with the highest degree of accuracy possible. Staging should include a complete clinical examination and a computed tomography (CT) scan of the neck, chest and abdomen [III, A]. Ultrasound of the abdomen can be carried out initially as a simple and inexpensive test to exclude stage 4 liver metastases. In candidates for surgical resection, endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) should be carried out to evaluate the T and N tumour categories [III, B]. The sensitivity and specificity of EUS for the correct evaluation of the T category are 81%–92% and 94%–97%, respectively. It is lower for the N category [7.Puli S.R. Reddy J.B. Bechtold M.L. et al.Staging accuracy of esophageal cancer by endoscopic ultrasound: a meta-analysis and systematic review.World J Gastroenterol. 2008; 14: 1479-1490Google Scholar]. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography (FDG-PET; today mostly done as PET-CT) is particularly helpful to identify otherwise undetected distant metastases. 18F-FDG-PET should, therefore, be carried out in patients who are candidates for oesophagectomy [III, B], as the finding of otherwise unknown distant metastases may prevent patients from futile surgery. However, the availability of PET-CT differs among countries and centres. A tracheobronchoscopy should be carried out in the case of tumours at or above the tracheal bifurcation to exclude tracheal invasion. In the case of oesophageal SCC due to chronic tobacco and alcohol consumption, meticulous investigation of the oral cavity, oropharynx and hypopharynx by an ear, nose and throat specialist, as well as trachea-bronchoscopy to exclude a synchronous second cancer in the aerodigestive tract, should be carried out [IV, B]. In locally advanced (T3/T4) ACs of the oesophago-gastric junction (OGJ) infiltrating the anatomic cardia, laparoscopy can be done to rule out peritoneal metastases, which are found in ∼15% of patients. [IV, C]. The finding of otherwise unknown peritoneal metastases may prevent patients from futile surgery. The stage is to be given according to the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC)/Union for International Cancer Control (UICC) TNM staging system (7th edition) (Table 1) [8.Edge S.B. Byrd D.R. Compton C.C. et al.AJCC Cancer Staging Manual.7th edition. Springer, New York, NY2010Google Scholar]. Anatomic staging should be complemented by medical risk assessment, especially in patients who are scheduled for multimodal therapy and/or surgery. Medical risk assessment should comprise a differential blood count as well as liver, pulmonary, cardiac and renal function tests.Table 1TNM staging for oesophageal cancer (UICC/AJCC, 7th edition) [8.Edge S.B. Byrd D.R. Compton C.C. et al.AJCC Cancer Staging Manual.7th edition. Springer, New York, NY2010Google Scholar, with permission]Definition of TNM (2009)Primary tumour (T)TX Primary tumour cannot be assessedT0 No evidence of primary tumourTis Carcinoma in situ/high-grade dysplasiaT1 Tumour invades lamina propria or submucosaT1a Tumour invades mucosa or lamina propria or muscularis mucosaeT1b Tumour invades submucosaT2 Tumour invades muscularis propriaT3 Tumour invades adventitiaT4 Tumour invades adjacent structuresT4a Tumour invades pleura, pericardium, diaphragm or adjacent peritoneumT4b Tumour invades other adjacent structures such as aorta, vertebral body or tracheaRegional lymph nodes (N)NX Regional lymph nodes cannot be assessedN0 No regional lymph node metastasisN1 Metastasis in 1–2 regional lymph nodesN2 Metastasis in 3–6 regional lymph nodesN3 Metastasis in 7 or more regional lymph nodesDistant metastasisMX Distant metastasis cannot be assessedM0 No distant metastasisM1 Distant metastasisStage grouping Carcinomas of the oesophagus and gastro-oesophageal junctionStage 0TisN0M0Stage IAT1N0M0Stage IBT2N0M0Stage IIAT3N0M0Stage IIBT1, T2N1M0Stage IIIAT4aN0M0T3N1M0T1, T2N2M0Stage IIIBT3N2M0Stage IIICT4aN1, N2M0T4bAny NM0Any TN3M0Stage IVAny TAny NM1The regional lymph nodes, irrespective of the site of the primary tumour, are those in the oesophageal drainage area including coeliac axis nodes and paraoesophageal nodes in the neck but not supraclavicular nodes.Edge et al. [8.Edge S.B. Byrd D.R. Compton C.C. et al.AJCC Cancer Staging Manual.7th edition. Springer, New York, NY2010Google Scholar]. Used with the permission of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC), Chicago, IL, USA. The original source for this material is the AJCC Cancer Staging Handbook, 7th edition (2010) published by Springer Science and Business Media LLC, www.springer.com. Open table in a new tab The regional lymph nodes, irrespective of the site of the primary tumour, are those in the oesophageal drainage area including coeliac axis nodes and paraoesophageal nodes in the neck but not supraclavicular nodes. Edge et al. [8.Edge S.B. Byrd D.R. Compton C.C. et al.AJCC Cancer Staging Manual.7th edition. Springer, New York, NY2010Google Scholar]. Used with the permission of the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC), Chicago, IL, USA. The original source for this material is the AJCC Cancer Staging Handbook, 7th edition (2010) published by Springer Science and Business Media LLC, www.springer.com. The nutritional status and history of weight loss should be assessed according to The European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) guidelines [III, A] [9.Kondrup J. Allison S.P. Elia M. et al.ESPEN guidelines for nutrition screening 2002.Clin Nutr. 2003; 22: 415-421Google Scholar]. More than half of patients lose >5% of their body weight before admission to oesophagectomy, and 40% lose >10%. Independent from the body mass index, weight loss confers an increased operative risk, worsens a patient's quality of life and is associated with poor survival in advanced disease. Therefore, nutritional support according to the ESPEN guidelines [10.Weimann A. Braga M. Harsanyi L. et al.ESPEN guidelines on enteral nutrition: surgery including organ transplantation.Clin Nutr. 2006; 25: 224-244Google Scholar] is an integral part of the medical care for patients with oesophageal cancer in the curative and in the palliative setting [II, A]. Upfront interdisciplinary planning of the treatment is mandatory [III, A]. The main factors for selecting primary therapy are tumour stage and location, histological type, and the patient's performance status (PS) and comorbidities. Nutritional status matters and should be corrected. Endoscopic stenting should not be used in locoregional disease in operable patients and alternative routes of feeding (e.g. with needle catheter jejunostomy) should be preferred [II, A] [11.Mariette C. Gronnier C. Duhamel A. et al.Self-expanding covered metallic stent as a bridge to surgery in esophageal cancer: impact on oncologic outcomes.J Am Coll Surg. 2015; 220: 287-296Google Scholar]. Patient preferences should also be assessed and be taken into account. A summary of treatment recommendations is shown in Figure 1. Surgery is the treatment of choice in limited disease. In patients with T1a AC, endoscopic therapy is the preferred therapeutic approach, being both effective and well tolerated [II, A]. Endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) are both regarded as effective endoscopic resection techniques. Similar cure rates compared with surgical resection have been reported in specialised centres [12.Pech O. Bollschweiler E. Manner H. et al.Comparison between endoscopic and surgical resection of mucosal esophageal adenocarcinoma in Barrett's esophagus at two high-volume centers.Ann Surg. 2011; 254: 67-72Google Scholar]. Furthermore, in patients with superficial submucosal infiltration of an AC, but without further risk criteria (pT1sm1; <500 &mgr;m invasion, L0, V0, G1/2, <20 mm diameter, no ulceration), endoscopic resection can be considered as an alternative to oesophagectomy, but outcomes are still more limited than in mucosal AC [IV, B]. In the case of a high-grade intraepithelial neoplasia or a mucosal carcinoma (L0, V0, no ulceration, grading G1/G2, infiltration grade m1/m2) in the squamous epithelium, an endoscopic en bloc resection should be carried out [III, A]. ESD should be preferred over EMR, especially in lesions >15 mm, as in Japanese studies en bloc resection rate and the rate of R0 en bloc resections were shown to be higher with ESD [II, B]. In addition, relapses occurred less often [13.Cao Y. Liao C. Tan A. et al.Meta-analysis of endoscopic submucosal dissection versus endoscopic mucosal resection for tumors of the gastrointestinal tract.Endoscopy. 2009; 41: 751-757Google Scholar]. Radical and transthoracic oesophagectomy (Ivor-Lewis procedure) is the surgical technique of choice [I, B] in localised oesophageal cancer beyond very early stages (T1a N0). A prospective randomised study showed a strong trend towards better survival outcomes for this approach in resectable stage I–IV AC and OGJ AC, compared with less radical transhiatal resection in AC of the oesophagus [14.Hulscher J.B. Van Sandick J.W. De Boer A.G. et al.Extended transthoracic resection compared with limited transhiatal resection for adenocarcinoma of the esophagus.N Engl Med. 2002; 347: 1662-1669Google Scholar]. Details concerning endoscopic and surgical resection techniques are not in the scope of this article but can be found elsewhere [15.Mariette C. Piessen G. Briez N. et al.Oesophagogastric junction adenocarcinoma: which therapeutic approach?.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 296-305Google Scholar, 16.Mariette C. Piessen G. Oesophageal cancer: how radical should surgery be?.Eur J Surg Oncol. 2012; 38: 210-213Google Scholar]. The role of a minimally invasive approach to the thoracic and/or abdominal cavities is increasing in clinical practice. Recent randomised studies suggest that either thoracoscopic oesophagectomy or Ivor-Lewis procedure with laparoscopic gastric mobilisation and open right thoracotomy (called hybrid minimally invasive oesophagectomy) have led to significantly lower postoperative complication rates, especially pulmonary complications. For hybrid minimally invasive oesophagectomy, it was also demonstrated that short-term oncological outcomes, compared with classical Ivor-Lewis procedure, are not deteriorated [17.Biere S.S. van Berge Henegouwen M.I. Maas K.W. et al.Minimally invasive versus open oesophagectomy for patients with oesophageal cancer: a multicentre, open-label, randomised controlled trial.Lancet. 2012; 379: 1887-1892Google Scholar, 18.Mariette C. Meunier B. Pezet D. et al.Hybrid minimally invasive versus open oesophagectomy for patients with oesophageal cancer: a multicenter, open-label, randomized phase III controlled trial, the MIRO trial.J Clin Oncol. 2015; 33 (2015; 33 (January 20 Suppl.): abstr 5)Google Scholar]. Laparoscopic gastric mobilisation is now the standard procedure, based on the results of two randomised, controlled trials [II, A]. The additional role of thoracoscopic dissection should be confirmed in additional randomised studies, as well as its long-term oncological outcome/safety. If done, the procedure should be carried out in expert centres for selected patients with small tumours. Of note, the results of large, multicentre studies in different health systems provide sufficient evidence to support the centralisation of oesophagectomy to high volume centres, with a lower rate of morbidity and better infrastructure to deal with complications following major surgery, thereby preventing further mortality [I, A] [19.Birkmeyer J.D. Siewers A.E. Finlayson E.V. et al.Hospital volume and surgical mortality in the United States.N Engl J Med. 2002; 346: 1128-1137Google Scholar, 20.Markar S.R. Karthikesalingam A. Thrumurthy S. Low D.E. Volume-outcome relationship in surgery for esophageal malignancy: systematic review and meta-analysis 2000–2011.J Gastrointest Surg. 2012; 16: 1055-1063Google Scholar, 21.Brusselaers N. Mattsson F. Lagergren J. Hospital and surgeon volume in relation to long-term survival after oesophagectomy: systematic review and meta-analysis.Gut. 2014; 63: 1393-1400Google Scholar]. The value of preoperative treatment in limited disease is uncertain, as the number of patients who have been included in prospective randomised clinical trials is small [22.Sjoquist K.M. Burmeister B.H. Smithers B.M. et al.Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 681-692Google Scholar, 23.Kranzfelder M. Schuster T. Geinitz H. et al.Meta-analysis of neoadjuvant treatment modalities and definitive non-surgical therapy for oesophageal squamous cell cancer.Br J Surg. 2011; 98: 768-783Google Scholar, 24.Ronellenfitsch U. Schwarzbach M. Hofheinz R. et al.Preoperative chemo(radio)therapy versus primary surgery for gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma: systematic review with meta-analysis combining individual patient and aggregate data.Eur J Cancer. 2013; 49: 3149-3158Google Scholar, 25.Allum W.H. Stenning S.P. Bancewicz J. et al.Long-term results of a randomized trial of surgery with or without preoperative chemotherapy in esophageal cancer.J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 5062-5067Google Scholar]. A recent randomised study involving 195 patients with stage I and stage II oesophageal cancer showed that compared with surgery alone, neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy (CRT) with cisplatin plus fluorouracil did not improve R0 resection rate or survival but enhances postoperative mortality. The results of this study also suggest that surgery alone should be recommended as the primary treatment approach for cT2N0 oesophageal cancer, despite 50% of patients having nodal disease at the time of surgery [II, B] [26.Mariette C. Dahan L. Mornex F. et al.Surgery alone versus chemoradiotherapy followed by surgery for stage I and II esophageal cancer: final analysis of randomized controlled phase III trial FFCD 9901.J Clin Oncol. 2014; 32: 2416-2422Google Scholar, 27.Markar S.R. Gronnier C. Pasquer A. et al.Role of neoadjuvant treatment in clinical T2N0M0 oesophageal cancer: results from a retrospective multi-center European study.Eur J Cancer. 2016; 56: 59-68Google Scholar]. For patients unable or unwilling to undergo surgery, combined CRT is superior to radiotherapy (RT) alone [II, A] [21.Brusselaers N. Mattsson F. Lagergren J. Hospital and surgeon volume in relation to long-term survival after oesophagectomy: systematic review and meta-analysis.Gut. 2014; 63: 1393-1400Google Scholar]. Four courses of cisplatin/5-fluorouracil (5-FU) combined with radiation doses of 50.4 Gy in fractions of 1.8 Gy are regarded as standard for definitive CRT. Alternatively, six cycles of oxaliplatin/5-FU/folinic acid (FOLFOX) can be given [I, C] [28.Conroy T. Galais M.P. Raoul J.L. et al.Definitive chemoradiotherapy with FOLFOX versus fluorouracil and cisplatin in patients with oesophageal cancer (PRODIGE5/ACCORD17): final results of a randomised, phase 2/3 trial.Lancet Oncol. 2014; 15: 305-314Google Scholar]. Recent evolutions in technology with intensity-modulated and volumetric arc RT combined with functional imaging allow for increased radiation doses up to 60 Gy in fractions of 1.8–2.0 Gy, frequently using a simultaneously integrated boost. This approach allows for shortening the overall treatment time, which is advantageous especially in SCC of the oesophagus. There is insufficient evidence at this time to state that increased doses of RT improve survival in oesophageal cancer [29.Minsky B.D. Pajak T.F. Ginsberg R.J. et al.INT 0123 (Radiation Therapy Oncology Group 94–05) phase III trial of combined-modality therapy for esophageal cancer: high-dose versus standard-dose radiation therapy.J Clin Oncol. 2002; 20: 1167-1174Google Scholar], as the results of randomised studies evaluating the safety and oncological benefits of RT doses higher than 50.4 Gy are not yet available. This is of importance if salvage oesophagectomy is considered as a therapeutic strategy, since doses higher than 55 Gy have shown to be linked with increased postoperative mortality and morbidity [30.Markar S. Gronnier C. Duhamel A. et al.Salvage surgery after chemoradiotherapy in the management of esophageal cancer: is it a viable therapeutic option?.J Clin Oncol. 2015; 33: 3866-3873Google Scholar]. Surgery alone is not a standard treatment in locally advanced disease, since a complete (R0) tumour resection cannot be achieved in ∼30% (T3) to 50% (T4) of cases. Furthermore, even after complete tumour resection, long-term survival rarely exceeds 20%. Of note, preoperative treatment (chemotherapy or CRT) has been shown to increase R0 resection and survival rates [22.Sjoquist K.M. Burmeister B.H. Smithers B.M. et al.Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 681-692Google Scholar, 23.Kranzfelder M. Schuster T. Geinitz H. et al.Meta-analysis of neoadjuvant treatment modalities and definitive non-surgical therapy for oesophageal squamous cell cancer.Br J Surg. 2011; 98: 768-783Google Scholar, 24.Ronellenfitsch U. Schwarzbach M. Hofheinz R. et al.Preoperative chemo(radio)therapy versus primary surgery for gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma: systematic review with meta-analysis combining individual patient and aggregate data.Eur J Cancer. 2013; 49: 3149-3158Google Scholar, 25.Allum W.H. Stenning S.P. Bancewicz J. et al.Long-term results of a randomized trial of surgery with or without preoperative chemotherapy in esophageal cancer.J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 5062-5067Google Scholar, 31.van Hagen P. Hulshof M.C. van Lanschot J.J. et al.Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer.N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 2074-2084Google Scholar, 32.Shapiro J. van Lanschot J.J. Hulshof M.C. et al.Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy plus surgery versus surgery alone for oesophageal or junctional cancer (CROSS): long-term results of a randomised controlled trial.Lancet Oncol. 2015; 16: 1090-1098Google Scholar]. Therefore, preoperative treatment is clearly indicated in operable patients with locally advanced oesophageal cancer [I, A]. squamous cell carcinoma: Meta-analyses and a recent phase III study [20.Markar S.R. Karthikesalingam A. Thrumurthy S. Low D.E. Volume-outcome relationship in surgery for esophageal malignancy: systematic review and meta-analysis 2000–2011.J Gastrointest Surg. 2012; 16: 1055-1063Google Scholar, 22.Sjoquist K.M. Burmeister B.H. Smithers B.M. et al.Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 681-692Google Scholar, 23.Kranzfelder M. Schuster T. Geinitz H. et al.Meta-analysis of neoadjuvant treatment modalities and definitive non-surgical therapy for oesophageal squamous cell cancer.Br J Surg. 2011; 98: 768-783Google Scholar, 31.van Hagen P. Hulshof M.C. van Lanschot J.J. et al.Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer.N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 2074-2084Google Scholar] demonstrate that patients with locally advanced disease benefit from preoperative chemotherapy or, most likely to a greater extent, from preoperative CRT, with higher rates of complete tumour resection and better local tumour control and survival [I, A]. It was suggested in the past that preoperative CRT may also increase postoperative mortality rates, but this has not been the case when treatment is carried out in expert centres, with modern radiation planning techniques, use of adequate radiation doses and fractionation and a good multidisciplinary cooperation and infrastructure. On the basis of the results of the Chemoradiotherapy for Oesophageal Cancer Followed by Surgery Study (CROSS) [31.van Hagen P. Hulshof M.C. van Lanschot J.J. et al.Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer.N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 2074-2084Google Scholar, 32.Shapiro J. van Lanschot J.J. Hulshof M.C. et al.Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy plus surgery versus surgery alone for oesophageal or junctional cancer (CROSS): long-term results of a randomised controlled trial.Lancet Oncol. 2015; 16: 1090-1098Google Scholar], the weekly administration of carboplatin (doses titrated to achieve an area under the curve of 2 mg/ml/min) and paclitaxel (50 mg/m2 of body-surface area) for 5 weeks and concurrent RT (41.4 Gy in 23 fractions, 5 days per week), followed by surgery, can be recommended as a contemporary standard of care [I, A]. However, only patients with clinical stage T1N1 or T2-3N0-1 were included in that trial. Two prospective, randomised controlled studies resulted in equivalent overall survival (OS) outcomes of definitive CRT without surgery compared with neoadjuvant CRT followed by surgery, although the non-operative strategy was associated with higher local tumour recurrence rates [33.Stahl M. Stuschke M. Lehmann N. et al.Chemoradiation with and without surgery in patients with locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus.J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 2310-2317Google Scholar, 34.Bedenne L. Michel P. Bouché O. et al.Chemoradiation followed by surgery compared with chemoradiation alone in squamous cancer of the esophagus: FFCD 9102.J Clin Oncol. 2007; 25: 1160-1168Google Scholar]. Therefore, neoadjuvant CRT with planned surgery or definitive CRT with close surveillance and salvage surgery for local tumour persistence or progression [30.Markar S. Gronnier C. Duhamel A. et al.Salvage surgery after chemoradiotherapy in the management of esophageal cancer: is it a viable therapeutic option?.J Clin Oncol. 2015; 33: 3866-3873Google Scholar] can be considered to be the recommended definitive treatments for locally advanced SCC of the oesophagus [II, B] [22.Sjoquist K.M. Burmeister B.H. Smithers B.M. et al.Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 681-692Google Scholar]. However, there are currently no data comparing neoadjuvant CRT + surgery versus definitive CRT and salvage surgery on demand. Definitive CRT is recommended for cervically localised tumours [III, B]. For patients unable or unwilling to undergo surgery, treatment recommendations from the ‘limited disease’ section may be adapted. adenocarcinoma: On the basis of the recent meta-analyses and the largest prospective randomised controlled studies, perioperative chemotherapy with regimens containing a platinum and a fluoropyrimidine for a duration of 8–9 weeks in the preoperative phase (as well as 8-9 weeks in the postoperative phase, if feasible) or preoperative CRT (41.4–50.5 Gy) should be considered standard in locally advanced AC of the oesophagus, including OGJ cancers [I, A] [22.Sjoquist K.M. Burmeister B.H. Smithers B.M. et al.Survival after neoadjuvant chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy for resectable oesophageal carcinoma: an updated meta-analysis.Lancet Oncol. 2011; 12: 681-692Google Scholar, 23.Kranzfelder M. Schuster T. Geinitz H. et al.Meta-analysis of neoadjuvant treatment modalities and definitive non-surgical therapy for oesophageal squamous cell cancer.Br J Surg. 2011; 98: 768-783Google Scholar, 24.Ronellenfitsch U. Schwarzbach M. Hofheinz R. et al.Preoperative chemo(radio)therapy versus primary surgery for gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma: systematic review with meta-analysis combining individual patient and aggregate data.Eur J Cancer. 2013; 49: 3149-3158Google Scholar, 25.Allum W.H. Stenning S.P. Bancewicz J. et al.Long-term results of a randomized trial of surgery with or without preoperative chemotherapy in esophageal cancer.J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 5062-5067Google Scholar]. Direct comparison of chemotherapy versus CRT is scarce. Smaller randomised studies have shown that the addition of RT to neoadjuvant chemotherapy results in higher histologically complete response rates, higher R0 resection rates and a lower frequency of lymph-node metastases, without significantly affecting survival. In one of two studies, postoperative mortality was increased after neoadjuvant CRT [35.Stahl M. Walz M.K. Stuschke M. et al.Phase III comparison of preoperative chemotherapy compared with chemoradiotherapy in patients with locally advanced adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction.J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 851-856Google Scholar, 36.Klevebro F. Alexandersson von Döbeln G. Wang N. et al.A randomized clinical trial of neoadjuvant chemotherapy versus neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy for cancer of the oesophagus or gastro-oesophageal junction.Ann Oncol. 2016; 27: 660-667Google Scholar]. Chemotherapy with cisplatin/5-FU combined with 41.4–50.4 Gy in fractions of 1.8–2.0 Gy has long been the standard treatment, but two recent randomised trials showed a favourable toxicity profile for (bi)weekly combinations of oxaliplatin/5-FU or carboplatin/paclitaxel with RT [28.Conroy T. Galais M.P. Raoul J.L. et al.Definitive chemoradiotherapy with FOLFOX versus fluorouracil and cisplatin in patients with oesophageal cancer (PRODIGE5/ACCORD17): final results of a randomised, phase 2/3 trial.Lancet Oncol. 2014; 15: 305-314Google Scholar, 31.van Hagen P. Hulshof M.C. van Lanschot J.J. et al.Preoperative chemoradiotherapy for esophageal or junctional cancer.N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 2074-2084Google Scholar, 32.Shapiro J. van Lanschot J.J. Hulshof M.C. et al.Neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy plus surgery versus surgery alone for oesophageal or junctional cancer (CROSS): long-term results of a randomised controlled trial.Lancet Oncol. 2015; 16: 1090-1098Google Scholar]. Even after complete tumour response to preoperative chemo(radio