Article4 May 1999free access The Mex67p-mediated nuclear mRNA export pathway is conserved from yeast to human Jun Katahira Jun Katahira BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katja Sträßer Katja Sträßer BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Alexandre Podtelejnikov Alexandre Podtelejnikov CEBI Odense University, Staermosegaardsvej 16, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Matthias Mann Matthias Mann CEBI Odense University, Staermosegaardsvej 16, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Jae U. Jung Jae U. Jung Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114 USA Search for more papers by this author Ed Hurt Corresponding Author Ed Hurt BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Jun Katahira Jun Katahira BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Katja Sträßer Katja Sträßer BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Alexandre Podtelejnikov Alexandre Podtelejnikov CEBI Odense University, Staermosegaardsvej 16, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Matthias Mann Matthias Mann CEBI Odense University, Staermosegaardsvej 16, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark Search for more papers by this author Jae U. Jung Jae U. Jung Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114 USA Search for more papers by this author Ed Hurt Corresponding Author Ed Hurt BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany Search for more papers by this author Author Information Jun Katahira1, Katja Sträßer1, Alexandre Podtelejnikov2, Matthias Mann2, Jae U. Jung3 and Ed Hurt 1 1BZH, Biochemie-Zentrum Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 328, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany 2CEBI Odense University, Staermosegaardsvej 16, DK-5230 Odense, Denmark 3Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02114 USA *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] The EMBO Journal (1999)18:2593-2609https://doi.org/10.1093/emboj/18.9.2593 PDFDownload PDF of article text and main figures. ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack CitationsPermissions ShareFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyWechatReddit Figures & Info Human TAP is an orthologue of the yeast mRNA export factor Mex67p. In mammalian cells, TAP has a preferential intranuclear localization, but can also be detected at the nuclear pores and shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. TAP directly associates with mRNA in vivo, as it can be UV-crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA in HeLa cells. Both the FG-repeat domain of nucleoporin CAN/Nup214 and a novel human 15 kDa protein (p15) with homology to NTF2 (a nuclear transport factor which associates with RanGDP), directly bind to TAP. When green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged TAP and p15 are expressed in yeast, they localize to the nuclear pores. Strikingly, co-expression of human TAP and p15 restores growth of the otherwise lethal mex67::HIS3/mtr2::HIS3 double knockout strain. Thus, the human TAP–p15 complex can functionally replace the Mex67p–Mtr2p complex in yeast and thus performs a conserved role in nuclear mRNA export. Introduction In eukaryotic cells, transport of macromolecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm occurs through the nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) (Ohno et al., 1998). Each NPC, which have a mol. wt of 125 MDa in vertebrates (Reichelt et al., 1990) and 66 MDa in yeast (Yang et al., 1998), is composed of different subcomplexes containing unique sets of nuclear pore proteins (nucleoporins). By employing biochemical and genetic approaches, physical and genetic interactions of nucleoporins within subcomplexes have been demonstrated. It is likely that the various NPC subcomplexes play different roles in nucleocytoplasmic transport, maintenance of NPC structure and NPC biogenesis (Fabre and Hurt, 1997). Both small and large karyophilic proteins are imported into the nucleus with the help of a nuclear localization sequence (NLS). An NLS can be a short stretch of basic amino acids (classical NLS or bipartite NLS), or an extended NLS such as the M9 sequence of hnRNP A1, the RGG-box within Npl3p and complex ribosomal NLSs (for review see Mattaj and Englmeier, 1998). These NLSs are recognized either directly by importin/karyopherin β family transport receptors or indirectly via adaptor proteins. The latter is the case for importin/karyopherin α, the receptor for classical and bipartite NLSs (Conti et al., 1998), or snurportin, a receptor for snRNPs (Huber et al., 1998). Transport substrate–receptor complexes which form in the cytoplasm are translocated through the nuclear pores, most likely by direct contact between FXFG/GLFG/FG-repeat sequences containing nucleoporins and importin/karyopherin β subunits. When the translocated complex meets RanGTP inside the nucleus, the complex dissociates and the bound karyophilic protein is released (for a review see Görlich, 1998). Similar to nuclear import, nuclear export of both proteins and RNAs occurs through the nuclear pore complexes and is signal-mediated, and energy- and Ran-dependent (Dahlberg and Lund, 1998). The mechanism of Rev-mediated retroviral mRNA nuclear export is well understood (Ullman et al., 1997). Rev binds via its RNA-binding domain to the RRE of unspliced or partially spliced viral mRNA and via its leucine-rich NES to CRM1, also a member of the importin/karyopherin β family transport receptors (Fornerod et al., 1997a; Fukuda et al., 1997; Ossareh-Nazari et al., 1997; Stade et al., 1997). Complex formation is cooperative and requires RanGTP. An oligomeric viral pre-mRNA–REV–CRM1–RanGTP complex is then exported through the nuclear pores, again most likely through multiple contacts to nucleoporins with repeat sequences. It is thought that CRM1 makes the association with nuclear pore proteins, since it was found to co-purify with the FG-repeat containing nucleoporin CAN/Nup214 (Fornerod et al., 1997b) and exhibits two-hybrid interactions with other FG-repeat containing nucleoporins (Neville et al., 1997). Besides the CRM1-dependent export pathway, human and yeast Los1/exportin-t and CAS/Cse1p have been identified as the export receptors for tRNAs and importin α, respectively (Kutay et al., 1997, 1998; Arts et al., 1998; Hellmuth et al., 1998; Künzler and Hurt, 1998; Solsbacher et al., 1998). Based on these observations, the various nuclear export pathways are thought to require a distinct exportin belonging to the β-family (or the combination of several members), which binds cooperatively together with RanGTP to the NES of a given export substrate (Mattaj and Englmeier, 1998). Concerning mRNA export, several maturation steps such as splicing and modification of pre-mRNA are prerequisite for release of the transport substrate from intranuclear retention sites. It is well known that pre-mRNA becomes associated with many different RNA-binding proteins during or shortly after transcription, forming heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) particles (Dreyfuss et al., 1993). These hnRNP proteins can be UV-crosslinked to pre-mRNA and thus co-purify with poly(A)+ RNA under denaturing conditions. Interestingly, some hnRNP proteins, such as hnRNP A1, remain associated with mRNAs during transport into the cytoplasm, whereas others, like hnRNP C, dissociate from the mRNA before nuclear exit (Nakielny and Dreyfuss, 1996, 1997). Accordingly, shuttling proteins such as hnRNP A1 are thought to play a direct role in mRNA export. This is in accordance with the finding that hnRNP A1 not only contains a NLS but also a NES as part of the M9 sequence (Michael et al., 1995). Thus, in analogy to the Rev/CRM1-mediated viral mRNA export, cellular mRNA-binding proteins may serve as adapters that bridge mRNA and bona fide exportins of the importin/karyopherin β family. Besides adapter proteins and shuttling transport receptors, NPC components are crucial for mRNA export. Genetic screens and biochemical assays led to the identification of the Nup84p subcomplex in yeast which consists of Nup84p, Nup85p, Nup120p, the C-terminal domain of Nup145p, Sec13p and Seh1p (Siniossoglou et al., 1996). The complex is involved in both mRNA export and maintenance of the NPC structure. Using a synthetic lethal (sl) screen using a nup85 ts allele, a genetic interaction between MEX67 and NUP85 was discovered (Segref et al., 1997). Mex67p is essential and temperature-sensitive (ts) mutants show rapid and strong intranuclear mRNA accumulation. Furthermore, binding of Mex67p to both poly(A)+ RNA and NPC components was found. Mex67p performs its essential role in mRNA export in conjunction with another factor called Mtr2p (Santos-Rosa et al., 1998). In particular, Mex67p requires Mtr2p for stable association with the nuclear pores. Thus, formation of a heterodimeric complex between Mex67p and Mtr2p is essential for mRNA export in yeast. In mammalian cells, involvement of distinct nucleoporins (e.g. NUP153, CAN/Nup214 and NUP98) in mRNA export has also been implicated (Matunis et al., 1992; Bastos et al., 1996; Van Deursen et al., 1996; Powers et al., 1997). However, the precise mechanism of how nucleoporins participate in mRNA exit through the pores is unknown. Interestingly, a human protein called TAP which was first identified in a two-hybrid screen using the herpes virus saimiri tyrosine kinase-interacting protein (TIP) as bait (Yoon et al., 1997), shows significant homology to Mex67p and both proteins share a similar domain organization (Segref et al., 1997). More recently, TAP was found to be the cellular host factor which specifically recognizes the constitutive transport element (CTE) of D type retroviral mRNAs (Grüter et al., 1998). TAP stimulated export of CTE-containing mRNA that was blocked by excess of CTE RNA microinjected in Xenopus oocytes. In addition, excess of CTE inhibited export of cellular mRNA, but microinjected recombinant TAP rescued the CTE-mediated inhibition of mRNA export. However, very little is known about the functional properties of the TAP protein, whether it binds to cellular mRNA and how it interacts with components of the mRNA export machinery. We demonstrate here that TAP binds to poly(A)+ RNA in vivo and shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. By in vivo and in vitro studies, we found that TAP can bind directly to the FG-repeat domain of nucleoporin CAN/Nup214 and a novel protein with homology to the RanGDP-binding protein nuclear transport factor 2 (NTF2). Since the TAP–p15 complex is functional in yeast, we propose that TAP–p15 functions as an evolutionarily conserved mRNA exporter. Results TAP exhibits an intranuclear and NPC localization in mammalian cells The yeast mRNA export factor Mex67p and a human protein called TAP are homologous (Segref et al., 1997). To determine the subcellular localization of human TAP in mammalian cells, polyclonal antibodies were raised against the N- and C-terminal part of TAP in rabbits. On Western blots, these antibodies specifically reacted with bacterially expressed recombinant TAP (data not shown) and authentic TAP derived from HeLa and NIH 3T3 cells (Figure 1A). Whereas in the case of the anti-TAP-C immune serum, no cross-reactivity was seen with a putative Xenopus TAP homologue, the anti-TAP-N serum reacted with two bands of higher molecular weight compared with mammalian TAP (Figure 1A). By using both types of anti-TAP antibodies in indirect immunofluorescence, TAP was found to be concentrated inside of the nucleus in mammalian cells, with very little signal in the cytoplasm (Figure 1B). To find out whether a pool of TAP associates with NPCs, HeLa cells were pre-extracted under different conditions before fixation and indirect immunofluorescence (Figure 1C). In particular, when high salt or nuclease was used, a punctate nuclear envelope staining became apparent, which shows that a fraction of TAP exists at the nuclear envelope that is resistant to 0.5 M salt or DNase/RNase treatment, whereas the intranuclear TAP is largely removed by these conditions (Figure 1C). The nuclear rim labeling overlapped with the staining produced by the monoclonal antibody mAb414 that recognizes bona fide NPC antigens (Wente et al., 1992). In conclusion, TAP has a predominant intranuclear location in mammalian cells, but a pool of it can also be detected at the nuclear envelope. Figure 1.TAP shows an intranuclear and nuclear envelope location in mammalian cells. (A) Western blot analysis to detect TAP in mammalian cells using antibodies against the N-terminal (anti-TAP-N) and C-terminal (anti-TAP-C) domain of TAP. Total cell extracts, which were prepared from the same number (2×105) of human HeLa (lanes 1 and 4), Xenopus A6 (lanes 2 and 5) and mouse NIH 3T3 (lanes 3 and 6) cells, were separated by SDS–PAGE and transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes. The membranes were incubated with anti-TAP-C (lanes 1–3) and anti-TAP-N antibodies (lanes 4–6) followed by incubation with peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgGs. Bands were visualized by the enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) method. (B) Intracellular localization of TAP in fixed and permeabilized HeLa cells by indirect immunofluorescence using pre-immune, anti-TAP-N and anti-TAP-C antibodies. (C) Intracellular localization of TAP in pre-extracted cells using CSK buffer, high salt (0.5 M ammonium sulfate) or DNase/RNase. Cells were double-stained with anti-TAP-C and nucleoporin-specific MAb 414. Download figure Download PowerPoint TAP shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm Although TAP localizes predominantly to the nucleoplasm under steady state, it may continuously shuttle between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Since anti-TAP-C antibodies do not crossreact, either on Western blots (Figure 1A) or by indirect immunofluorescence (Figure 2) with a putative Xenopus TAP, it was possible to analyze the shuttling of TAP from a mammalian into a Xenopus nucleus in a heterokaryon assay by indirect immunofluorescence (Borer et al., 1989; Piñol-Roma and Dreyfuss, 1992). The heterokaryons generated here consisted of human HeLa or mouse 3T3 cells fused to Xenopus A6 cells. If TAP shuttles, one expects to see transfer of TAP from the mammalian into the Xenopus nucleus after heterokaryon formation, in the presence of cycloheximide. A bona fide shuttling (hnRNP A1) and non-shuttling protein (hnRNP C) (Piñol-Roma and Dreyfuss, 1992) served as controls. As can be seen in Figure 2, TAP and hnRNP A1, but not hnRNP C, shuttle between the mammalian and Xenopus nucleus. Interestingly, TAP equilibrates between the two types of nuclei (Xenopus versus mouse nucleus) with kinetics similar to hnRNP A1 shuttling (Figure 2E, compare with F). Accordingly, TAP shuttles rapidly between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Figure 2.TAP shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Heterokaryons were formed between Xenopus A6 cells and human HeLa [(A)–(D)] and mouse NIH 3T3 cells [(E)–(H)], respectively. Cells were fixed, permeabilized and the distribution of TAP [(A) and (E)], hnRNP A1 (F) and hnRNP C (B) was analyzed by indirect immunofluorescence microscopy using mammalian-specific antibodies. The Xenopus nuclei (indicated by arrow heads) were identified by DNA staining with Hoechst 33258 [(C) and (G)]. Note that A6 nuclei in non-fused cells (indicated by arrows) do not exhibit a TAP immunofluorescence signal. Cells were also viewed using Nomarski optics [(D) and (H)]. Download figure Download PowerPoint TAP contains a nuclear localization signal at its N-terminal end To determine the NLS within TAP, various TAP deletion constructs were tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP) and transiently expressed in mammalian cells. All fusion proteins were synthesized according to their expected size with little or no degradation (Figure 3A). Full-length TAP and truncation constructs lacking amino acids from the C-terminal part still accumulated inside the nucleus. GFP–TAP (1–127) was the shortest construct conferring strong nuclear accumulation. On the other hand, a corresponding N-terminal deletion [GFP–TAP (127–559)] exhibits an equal distribution between the nucleus and cytoplasm, with the tendency to accumulate slightly at the nuclear envelope. The NLS within the N-terminal part of TAP could be further restricted to the first 40 amino acids, but in this case a weak cytoplasmic signal also became evident (Figure 3B). This NLS domain within TAP is very basic (pI = 11.5), but it is not clear whether it corresponds to a classical, bipartite or extended NLS (Figure 3A). Figure 3.A NLS within the N-terminal end of TAP. (A) Transient expression of full-length GFP–TAP and the various GFP–TAP deletion constructs in HeLa cells was revealed by Western blot analysis using an anti-GFP antibody. Numbers indicate the amino acid length of the corresponding TAP constructs. The primary sequence of the TAP (1–40) is also shown and positively charged amino acids are indicated in bold. (B) Subcellular location of GFP–TAP fusion proteins in transfected HeLa cells. Twenty-four hours after transfection, cells were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde and the subcellular localization of GFP–TAP fusion proteins was determined by fluorescence microscopy. Download figure Download PowerPoint TAP can be UV-crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA in living HeLa cells If TAP is involved in the nuclear export of cellular mRNA, it may bind directly to its transport substrate. Therefore, we tested whether TAP is bound in vivo to poly(A)+ RNA. HeLa cells were UV-irradiated to induce nucleic acid–protein crosslinks and poly(A)+ RNA was purified by oligo(dT) cellulose chromatography under denaturing conditions (Matunis et al., 1993). As expected, hnRNP C could be efficiently crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA (Figure 4A). In contrast, hnRNP A1, known to be less well crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA (Piñol-Roma et al., 1989a), was not significantly detected in the purified poly(A)+ fraction. TAP could be clearly crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA, but required higher UV-light doses and the efficiency was lower than for hnRNP C. Fibrillarin, which is a nucleolar, snoRNA-associated protein involved in rRNA processing, was not crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA. This demonstrates that TAP can be directly crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA in vivo and thus associate with mRNA. Figure 4.TAP can be UV-crosslinked to poly(A)+ RNA in vivo and binds to RNA in vitro. (A) Protein–RNA crosslinks were induced by irradiating HeLa cells with UV light and poly(A)+ RNA was purified by oligo(dT) cellulose chromatography. RNase A-treated poly(A)+ RNA (lanes 2–5) and a whole-cell extract (lane 1) were analyzed by Western blotting using anti-TAP-C (upper panel), anti-hnRNP A1 and C1/C2 monoclonal (middle panel) and anti-fibrillarin monoclonal antibodies (lower panel). (B) Recombinant TAP can bind to RNA in vitro. Full-length TAP and the various deletion constructs, tagged at the N-terminal end with GST followed by six histidines, were partially purified by Ni-affinity chromatography. The eluted proteins were tested for in vitro RNA binding using a gel bandshift assay with in vitro transcribed and 32P-labeled RNA probe (Santos-Rosa et al., 1998). Histidine-tagged GST alone served as negative control. The free RNA probe and the area of the TAP-induced bandshift is indicated as revealed by PAGE and autoradiography. Lane 1, GST-His6 (∼4 μg); lanes 2 and 3, ∼0.5 and 0.125 μg full-length TAP (1–559); lanes 4 and 5, ∼1 and 0.25 μg TAP (1–127); lanes 6 and 7, ∼1 and 0.25 μg TAP (1–281); lanes 8 and 9, ∼0.5 and 0.125 μg TAP (1–446); lanes 10 and 11, ∼1 and 0.25 μg TAP (127–559); lanes 12 and 13, ∼1 and 0.25 μg TAP (283–559). Download figure Download PowerPoint In vitro binding of TAP to RNA Although TAP binds to CTE RNA (Grüter et al., 1998) and poly(A)+ RNA, it does not exhibit any known RNA-binding motifs. Therefore, we tested by gel band-shift assay whether TAP, like yeast Mex67p (Santos-Rosa et al., 1998), exhibits an in vitro RNA-binding activity. Recombinant TAP and various deletion constructs were expressed in Escherichia coli as glutathione S-transferase (GST)- and histidine-tagged fusion proteins and purified by affinity chromatography. These TAP constructs were then tested for their ability to bind to a 32P-labeled RNA probe, which was synthesized by in vitro transcription of the pBluescript SK− polylinker sequence (Santos-Rosa et al., 1998). Whereas histidine-tagged GST alone did not show any affinity to radiolabeled RNA (Figure 4B, lane 1), full-length TAP produced a distinct band shift (Figure 4B, lane 2). This shows that recombinant TAP can bind to RNA in vitro. All the C-terminally, but not N-terminally truncated TAP constructs generated RNA band shifts, although less efficiently compared with full-length TAP (Figure 4B, lanes 4–13). Thus, TAP can bind to RNA in vitro. Identification of the human nucleoporin CAN/Nup214 and a novel protein CG1 as TAP-interacting proteins To examine to which protein(s) TAP binds in human cells, a two-hybrid screen was performed with a human testis cDNA library using full-length TAP as bait. Among the 1.5×106 screened colonies, 32 positive clones finally fulfilled the specificity requirements. Of these, 17 contained cDNAs of variable length, but all encoded the C-terminal FG-repeat domain of CAN/Nup214 (Kraemer et al., 1994). Clone #291 contained the smallest cDNA insert encoding residues 1805–2090 of CAN/Nup214 (Figure 5A). Further deletions within the C-terminal domain of CAN/Nup214 showed that FG-repeat sequences within the extreme C-terminal end of CAN/Nup214 are essential for the interaction with TAP (Figure 5A, CAN1-4). Recently, an unexpected two-hybrid interaction was reported in which Rip1p (an FG-repeat nucleoporin) interacted with the Rev NES via the bridging protein Xpo1p (Neville et al., 1997). We therefore tested whether CRM1/Xpo1p can interact directly with TAP, which may contain a NES. However, no two-hybrid interaction between TAP and Xpo1 was found in the two-hybrid assay (data not shown). Figure 5.TAP binds directly to FG-repeat sequences. (A) The FG-repeat domain of CAN/Nup214 interacts with TAP in the two-hybrid assay. The CAN/Nup214 amino acid sequence from residue 1–2090 is schematically shown as a box and individual FG-repeat sequences are indicated by vertical lines. β-galactosidase activities were determined for the various two-hybrid clones and the strength of interaction with TAP is indicated by plus and minus signs (+++, very strong; ++, strong; +/−, little; −, no blue color development). The repetitive FG-repeat domain of clone #291 is given as insert. (B) The C-terminal domain of TAP interacts with FG-repeats. Two-hybrid interactions between clone #153 (CAN/Nup214 aa 1467–2090) and a series of TAP truncation constructs inserted into pAS2, as revealed by the HIS+/lacZ+ phenotype. Also shown is the domain organization of TAP and the various truncation constructs. Relative β-galactosidase activities are indicated as described in (A). (C) The FG-repeat domain of a novel human protein hCG1 (DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank accession No. U97198) interacts with TAP in the two-hybrid assay. The amino acid sequence of hCG1 is shown and its FG-domain (clone #191) which was found in the two-hybrid screen with TAP is boxed. In the lower part, a sequence comparison between the C-domains of hCG1 and yeast Rip1p/Nup42p is depicted. (D) In vitro binding of TAP to CAN/Nup214. Bead-immobilized GST (lane 3), GST–CAN3 (aa 1462–1795; lanes 4 and 5) and GST–CAN4 (aa 1462–1909; lanes 1 and 2) were mixed with full-length, untagged TAP (lane 6). Bound proteins (lanes 1–5) were analyzed together with the partially purified TAP fraction (lane 6) by SDS–PAGE and Coomassie staining (upper panel) or Western blotting using anti-TAP-C antibodies (lower panel). The positions of GST alone and GST–CAN fusion proteins are indicated by asterisks, the position of TAP by an arrowhead. Note that for the Western blot, three times more histidine-tagged TAP than in the Coomassie stained gel was loaded. (E) Two-hybrid interactions between Mex67p and CAN/Nup214 FG-repeat sequences. The bait plasmid pAS2-MEX67 (full-length) and the various pACTII prey plasmids containing the CAN4, CAN3, CAN2 and CAN1 constructs (see also Figure 5A) were transformed into the yeast strain Y-190. It was first selected on SDC (−leu −trp) plates, before it was streaked onto SDC (−leu −trp −his; + 15 mM 3-AT; + X-Gal) plates. Growth and color development was photographed after 5 days. Download figure Download PowerPoint To map the CAN/Nup214-binding domain within TAP, various TAP truncation constructs were tested in the two-hybrid assay. As shown in Figure 5B, all C-terminally truncated, but not N-terminally truncated constructs of TAP were impaired in the interaction with CAN/Nup214. A minimal construct comprising residues 447–559 of TAP still exhibits a HIS+/lacZ+ phenotype in the two-hybrid assay. Thus, part of the middle domain plus the C-terminal domain of TAP (for definition of domain boundaries, see Segref et al., 1997) are necessary and sufficient for the interaction with CAN/Nup214. Interestingly, another two-hybrid cDNA clone was found with TAP as a bait which encodes a sequence highly resembling the FG-domain of CAN/Nup214 or other family members (Figure 5C). The full-length cDNA of this clone is present in the sequence data library as human CG1 (DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank accession No. U97198). Strikingly, hCG1 contains in its non-repetitive C-terminal end a sequence with homology to the corresponding C-domain of yeast Rip1p/Nup42p (Figure 5C). Thus, hCG1, which is not human Rip (Bogerd et al., 1995) but appears to be a homologue of yeast Rip1p/Nup42p (Stutz et al., 1995), interacts with TAP. In vitro reconstitution of a TAP–CAN/Nup214 complex To show that TAP directly binds to CAN/Nup214, GST-tagged CAN4 and CAN3 (see also Figure 5A), as well as GST alone, were expressed in E.coli and purified by glutathione–Sepharose chromatography. Partially purified recombinant TAP protein was added to these immobilized GST proteins. After incubation and several washing steps, the bound material was eluted and analyzed by SDS–PAGE and Coomassie staining or Western blotting using anti-TAP antibodies. Clearly, TAP stoichiometrically bound to GST–CAN4, and to a lesser extent to GST–CAN3, but not at all to GST alone (Figure 5D). Thus, the two-hybrid data are consistent with the in vitro binding studies which revealed that TAP can interact directly with the FG-repeat domain of CAN/Nup214. We also addressed the question of whether Mex67p can interact with FG-repeat sequences containing nucleoporins by two-hybrid analysis. Strikingly, full-length Mex67p interacts with the various CAN/Nup214 FG-repeat constructs in a way similar to TAP; a strong HIS+/lacZ+ phenotype was seen with CAN4, less blue color development with CAN3 and no growth and no lacZ activity with CAN2 and CAN1 (Figure 5E). Unfortunately, we could not demonstrate by two-hybrid analysis that Mex67p interacts with Nup159p FG-repeat sequences, since the prey plasmid pACTII containing the FG-repeat domain of Nup159p showed auto-activation (K.Sträßer, unpublished results). In conclusion, both Mex67p and TAP interact with FG repeat sequences of CAN/Nup214. A novel protein homologous to the RanGDP-binding protein NTF2 binds to TAP Mex67p interacts physically and functionally with Mtr2p and complex formation is essential for mRNA export in yeast (Santos-Rosa et al., 1998). To identify a mammalian Mtr2p homologue which binds to TAP, human cells were labeled with [35S]methionine, and TAP was immunoprecipitated under non-denaturing conditions. Strikingly, both anti-TAP-C and anti-TAP-N antibodies immunoprecipitated a 15 kDa protein which was not seen when the pre-immune serum was used (Figure 6A, fluorography). A [35S]methionine-labeled band comigrating with TAP was also precipitated by the pre-immune serum, but this protein is not reactive with anti-TAP-C antibodies on Western blots (Figure 6A, compare fluorography with Western blot). To identify the p15 band, a HeLa nuclear extract (corresponding to 5×109 cells) was used as starting material (Figure 6B, lane 1). First, TAP was partially purified from this nuclear extract by MonoS fast performance liquid chromatography (FPLC) (Figure 6B, lane 2), before TAP-containing fractions were subjected to immunoprecipitation using anti-TAP-C antibodies. Under these conditions, TAP was quantitatively immunoprecipitated together with another prominent 15 kDa protein which became visible by SDS–PAGE and silver staining (Figure 6B lanes 3 and 4). The 70 kDa band was indeed identified as TAP by high sensitivity mass spectrometry (Shevchenko et al., 1996a). For the p15 band co-precipitating with TAP, MALDI peptide mapping did not allow its positive identification, indicating that it is a novel protein. Therefore, the peptide mixture was sequenced by nanoelectrospray mass spectrometry (Wilm and Mann, 1996; Wilm et al., 1996). The peptides were isotopically labeled at the C-terminus by performing the digestion in the presence of 18O water and the resulting peptides were sequenced on a prototype quadrupole time-of-flight instrument (QqTOF). This procedure gives high quality data even at very low protein levels due to the high resolution of the QqTOF inst