MEG3 is a maternally expressed imprinted gene suggested to function as a non-coding RNA. Our previous studies suggest that MEG3 has a function of tumor suppression. The tumor suppressor p53 plays a central role in tumor suppression and mediates the functions of many other tumor suppressors. Therefore, we hypothesized that MEG3 functions through activation of p53. We found that transfection of expression constructs for MEG3 and its isoforms results in a significant increase in p53 protein levels and dramatically stimulates p53-dependent transcription from a p53-responsive promoter. Using this as the functional assay, we demonstrated that the open reading frames encoded by MEG3 transcripts are not required for MEG3 function, and the folding of MEG3 RNA is critical to its function, supporting the concept that MEG3 functions as a non-coding RNA. We further found that MEG3 stimulates expression of the growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) by enhancing p53 binding to the GDF15 gene promoter. Interestingly, MEG3 does not stimulate p21CIP1 expression, suggesting that MEG3 can regulate the specificity of p53 transcriptional activation. p53 degradation is mainly mediated by the mouse double minute 2 homolog (MDM2). We found that MDM2 levels were down-regulated in cells transfected with MEG3, suggesting that MDM2 suppression contributes at least in part to p53 accumulation induced by MEG3. Finally, we found that MEG3 is able to inhibit cell proliferation in the absence of p53. These data suggest that MEG3 non-coding RNA may function as a tumor suppressor, whose action is mediated by both p53-dependent and p53-independent pathways. MEG3 is a maternally expressed imprinted gene suggested to function as a non-coding RNA. Our previous studies suggest that MEG3 has a function of tumor suppression. The tumor suppressor p53 plays a central role in tumor suppression and mediates the functions of many other tumor suppressors. Therefore, we hypothesized that MEG3 functions through activation of p53. We found that transfection of expression constructs for MEG3 and its isoforms results in a significant increase in p53 protein levels and dramatically stimulates p53-dependent transcription from a p53-responsive promoter. Using this as the functional assay, we demonstrated that the open reading frames encoded by MEG3 transcripts are not required for MEG3 function, and the folding of MEG3 RNA is critical to its function, supporting the concept that MEG3 functions as a non-coding RNA. We further found that MEG3 stimulates expression of the growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) by enhancing p53 binding to the GDF15 gene promoter. Interestingly, MEG3 does not stimulate p21CIP1 expression, suggesting that MEG3 can regulate the specificity of p53 transcriptional activation. p53 degradation is mainly mediated by the mouse double minute 2 homolog (MDM2). We found that MDM2 levels were down-regulated in cells transfected with MEG3, suggesting that MDM2 suppression contributes at least in part to p53 accumulation induced by MEG3. Finally, we found that MEG3 is able to inhibit cell proliferation in the absence of p53. These data suggest that MEG3 non-coding RNA may function as a tumor suppressor, whose action is mediated by both p53-dependent and p53-independent pathways. RNAs that do not encode any proteins and function at the RNA level are non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). 3The abbreviations used are: ncRNAnon-coding RNABrdUrdbromodeoxyuridineChIPchromatin immunoprecipitationCMVcytomegalovirusGDF15growth differentiation factor 15ORFopen reading framewtwild typeMEG3maternally expressed gene 3rRNAribosomal RNAGFPgreen fluorescent proteinTRITCtetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanateLIlabeling indexAct Dactinomycin DE3ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligaseMDM2mouse double minute 2 homolog In recent years, emerging evidence indicates that they play important roles in regulating cellular and biological functions (1Mattick J.S. Makunin I.V. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2006; 15: R17-R29Crossref PubMed Scopus (1853) Google Scholar, 2Pang K.C. Frith M.C. Mattick J.S. Trends Genet. 2006; 22: 1-5Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (506) Google Scholar). Besides the well known transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNAs, ncRNAs can be categorized into small nuclear RNAs, small nucleolar RNAs, micro-RNAs, small interfering RNAs, and medium/large ncRNAs that do not belong to the aforementioned RNAs (1Mattick J.S. Makunin I.V. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2006; 15: R17-R29Crossref PubMed Scopus (1853) Google Scholar, 3Mattick J.S. Makunin I.V. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2005; 14: R121-R132Crossref PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar). Small nuclear RNAs and small nucleolar RNAs are usually 60–300 nucleotides long and are mainly involved in ribosome biogenesis and RNA splicing (4Matera A.G. Terns R.M. Terns M.P. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2007; 8: 209-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (586) Google Scholar). MicroRNAs and small interfering RNAs are mostly 22 nucleotides long and function to negatively regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level (3Mattick J.S. Makunin I.V. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2005; 14: R121-R132Crossref PubMed Scopus (414) Google Scholar). The medium/large ncRNAs are usually 1–2 kb in length and may carry polyadenylyl tails, which are mRNA-like except that they do not encode any proteins. ncRNAs in this class are particularly interesting because they appear to have distinctive functions based on published reports (2Pang K.C. Frith M.C. Mattick J.S. Trends Genet. 2006; 22: 1-5Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (506) Google Scholar) and participate in a variety of cellular functions. For example, H19 was reported to suppress growth of embryonal tumors and is believed to be an ncRNA tumor suppressor (5Hao Y. Crenshaw T. Moulton T. Newcomb E. Tycko B. Nature. 1993; 365: 764-767Crossref PubMed Scopus (584) Google Scholar). The B2 transcript of non-small cell lung cancer line has been shown to inhibit growth of lung cancer cells (6Jacquot C. Carbonnelle D. Tomasoni C. Papaconstadinou A. Roussis V. Roussakis C. Int. J. Oncol. 2004; 25: 519-527PubMed Google Scholar). The steroid receptor RNA activator functions as a co-activator in regulating transcription by nuclear receptors (7Lanz R.B. McKenna N.J. Onate S.A. Albrecht U. Wong J. Tsai S.Y. Tsai M.J. O'Malley B.W. Cell. 1999; 97: 17-27Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (683) Google Scholar). However, the cellular functions of many such medium/large ncRNAs remain elusive. non-coding RNA bromodeoxyuridine chromatin immunoprecipitation cytomegalovirus growth differentiation factor 15 open reading frame wild type maternally expressed gene 3 ribosomal RNA green fluorescent protein tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate labeling index actinomycin D ubiquitin-protein isopeptide ligase mouse double minute 2 homolog Human maternally expressed gene 3 (MEG3) is an mRNA-like RNA with a length of ∼1.6 kb nucleotides (Gen-Bank™ NR_002766) (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). Its mouse homologue is Gtl2 (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). MEG3/Gtl2 is a single copy gene and is not embedded within another cellular gene. In addition, there is no evidence suggesting that MEG3/Gtl2 is antisense to any gene transcripts. MEG3/Gtl2 with the paternally imprinted gene Dlk1 defines the Dlk1-Gtl2 imprinted locus, which lies on human chromosome 14q and mouse chromosome 12q (9Wylie A.A. Murphy S.K. Orton T.C. Jirtle R.L. Genome Res. 2000; 10: 1711-1718Crossref PubMed Scopus (245) Google Scholar, 10Takada S. Tevendale M. Baker J. Georgiades P. Campbell E. Freeman T. Johnson M.H. Paulsen M. Ferguson-Smith A.C. Curr. Biol. 2000; 10: 1135-1138Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (193) Google Scholar). The imprinting of this gene is controlled by an intergenic germ line-derived differentially methylated region (11Lin S.P. Youngson N. Takada S. Seitz H. Reik W. Paulsen M. Cavaille J. Ferguson-Smith A.C. Nat. Genet. 2003; 35: 97-102Crossref PubMed Scopus (391) Google Scholar). Genomic structure analysis reveals that the MEG3/Gtl2 gene consists of 10 exons (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). It generates multiple transcripts, attributed to alternative splicing (12Schuster-Gossler K. Bilinski P. Sado T. Ferguson-Smith A. Gossler A. Dev. Dyn. 1998; 212: 214-228Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar, 13Croteau S. Charron M.C. Latham K.E. Naumova A.K. Mamm. Genome. 2003; 14: 231-241Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar). MEG3 gene transcripts consist of several small open reading frames (ORFs). No consensus Kozak sequences are found in their initial ATG region. In addition, the putative proteins encoded by those ORFs do not resemble any known functional proteins or peptide. Therefore, it has been suggested that MEG3/Gtl2 is an ncRNA (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 12Schuster-Gossler K. Bilinski P. Sado T. Ferguson-Smith A. Gossler A. Dev. Dyn. 1998; 212: 214-228Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar). However, because the function of MEG3 has remained largely unknown, a functional assay did not exist to confirm its ncRNA identity. MEG3 is expressed in many normal human tissues, with the highest expression found in the brain and pituitary gland (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar). In the normal pituitary, it is co-localized to gonadotroph-producing cells (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar). However, we found that human pituitary tumors of a gonadotroph cell linage do not express MEG3 (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar). In addition, MEG3 is not expressed in many human cancer cell lines, including brain cancer derived lines (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar, 15Astuti D. Latif F. Wagner K. Gentle D. Cooper W.N. Catchpoole D. Grundy R. Ferguson-Smith A.C. Maher E.R. Br. J. Cancer. 2005; 92: 1574-1580Crossref PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar). The loss of MEG3 expression in tumors has been found to be, at least in part, the result of hypermethylation in the MEG3 gene promoter region as well as the intergenic germ line-derived differentially methylated region (15Astuti D. Latif F. Wagner K. Gentle D. Cooper W.N. Catchpoole D. Grundy R. Ferguson-Smith A.C. Maher E.R. Br. J. Cancer. 2005; 92: 1574-1580Crossref PubMed Scopus (115) Google Scholar, 16Zhao J. Dahle D. Zhou Y. Zhang X. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2005; 90: 2179-2186Crossref PubMed Scopus (177) Google Scholar). Furthermore, we found that ectopic expression of one MEG3 isoform, MEG3a, suppresses growth of several human cancer cell lines in culture (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar). These studies suggest that the MEG3 gene may play a role in tumor suppression. Tumor suppression is a cellular defense mechanism preventing the neoplastic transformation of normal cells, and the tumor suppressor p53 plays a central role in tumor suppression (17Vogelstein B. Lane D. Levine A.J. Nature. 2000; 408: 307-310Crossref PubMed Scopus (5850) Google Scholar). As a transcription factor, p53 functions by regulating expression of its target genes (18el-Deiry W.S. Semin. Cancer Biol. 1998; 8: 345-357Crossref PubMed Scopus (727) Google Scholar, 19Harris S.L. Levine A.J. Oncogene. 2005; 24: 2899-2908Crossref PubMed Scopus (1534) Google Scholar). p53 is activated by many stress signals, such as sustained mitogenic stimulation and DNA damage (19Harris S.L. Levine A.J. Oncogene. 2005; 24: 2899-2908Crossref PubMed Scopus (1534) Google Scholar). Its activation leads to cell cycle arrest, replicative senescence, or apoptosis depending on the strength of the signal and the cellular context (20Vousden K.H. Lu X. Nat. Rev. Cancer. 2002; 2: 594-604Crossref PubMed Scopus (2738) Google Scholar). p53 also suppresses tumor development through activities unrelated to cell cycle regulation, such as inhibition of tumor angiogenesis (21Teodoro J.G. Parker A.E. Zhu X. Green M.R. Science. 2006; 313: 968-971Crossref PubMed Scopus (154) Google Scholar). Therefore, functional inactivation of p53 has been found in most human cancers (17Vogelstein B. Lane D. Levine A.J. Nature. 2000; 408: 307-310Crossref PubMed Scopus (5850) Google Scholar). The most common cause of p53 inactivation is a mutation in the p53 gene. Other causes that functionally inactivate p53 include interaction with viral oncoproteins and genetic alterations in genes whose products affect the function of p53, such as those that interact with, or transmit information, to and from p53 (17Vogelstein B. Lane D. Levine A.J. Nature. 2000; 408: 307-310Crossref PubMed Scopus (5850) Google Scholar). p53 also plays a critical role in mediating tumor suppression functions of other tumor suppressors, such as ARF (22Sherr C.J. Weber J.D. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2000; 10: 94-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (572) Google Scholar), BRCA1 (23Ouchi T. Monteiro A.N. August A. Aaronson S.A. Hanafusa H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 2302-2306Crossref PubMed Scopus (334) Google Scholar), NF2 (24Kim H. Kwak N.J. Lee J.Y. Choi B.H. Lim Y. Ko Y.J. Kim Y.H. Huh P.W. Lee K.H. Rha H.K. Wang Y.P. J. Biol. Chem. 2004; 279: 7812-7818Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar), PTEN (25Mayo L.D. Donner D.B. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2002; 27: 462-467Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar), and VHL (26Roe J.S. Kim H. Lee S.M. Kim S.T. Cho E.J. Youn H.D. Mol. Cell. 2006; 22: 395-405Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar). Therefore, we hypothesized that p53 may also mediate MEG3 function. We found that ectopic expression of MEG3 activates p53 and stimulates its transcription activation activity. Using this as the functional assay, we demonstrate that MEG3 functions as a non-coding RNA. In addition, we show that MEG3 stimulates expression of GDF15 through activation of p53. Finally, we demonstrate that MEG3 is able to inhibit cell proliferation in the absence of p53. Our data suggest that MEG3 ncRNA has a tumor suppression function, which is mediated by both p53-dependent and p53-independent pathways. Plasmid Constructs—MEG3 cDNA and its isoforms, MEG3a, MEG3b, MEG3c, and MEG3d were subcloned into the expression vector pCI under the control of the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. The resultant constructs were designated as pCI-MEG3, pCI-MEG3a, pCI-MEG3b, pCI-MEG3c, and pCI-MEG3d, respectively. A fragment of approximate 400 bp was deleted from the 5′-end of MEG3 cDNA in pCI-MEG3 to generate pCI-MEG3-del5. pCI-MEG3b-del5 was similarly constructed. DNA fragments of MEG3 containing ORF1, ORF2, ORF3, ORF1 + 2, ORF1 + 3, or ORF2 + 3 were obtained from MEG3 cDNA and inserted into pCI to generate pCI-MEG3-ORF1, pCI-MEG3-ORF2, pCI-MEG3-ORF3, pCI-MEG3-ORF12, pCI-MEG3-ORF13, and pCI-MEG3-ORF23, respectively. MEG3 expression constructs carrying point mutations that cause a frameshift as well as create a premature in-frame stop codon in each ORF were generated using a PCR-based site-directed mutagenesis method with pCI-MEG3 as the template as described previously (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3 were destroyed in pCI-MEG3–1T23, pCI-MEG3–12A3, and pCI-MEG3–123C, respectively. Both ORF1 and −3 were destroyed in pCI-MEG3–1T23C, whereas all three ORFs were destroyed in pCI-MEG3–1T2A3C. A fragment between SalI and TfiI in MEG3 cDNA was deleted to generate pCI-MEG3-dST. A fragment between SphI and HindIII was deleted to generate pCI-MEG3-dSH. The CMV promoter was removed from pCI-MEG3b by restrictive enzyme digestion to generate pCI-MEG3b-P. The p53-responsive reporter construct p53-Luc was obtained from Stratagene (La Jolla, CA). The control plasmid pCMVβ expressing β-galactosidase was obtained from BD Clontech Laboratories (Palo Alto, CA). pCMS-d2EGFP is an expression vector containing an expression cassette of destabilized green fluorescent protein (d2EGFP) under the control of an SV40 early gene promoter. MEG3 cDNA was cloned into this vector under the control of a CMV promoter to generate pCMS-d2EGFP-MEG3. Expression vectors for p14ARF, and MEG3-del5 were similarly constructed. A DNA fragment containing sequences of the GDF15 gene promoter from nucleotide position −920 to +85 was amplified by PCR using a human genomic clone as template (clone CTC-251H24, from Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA), and subsequently cloned into pGL3-basic (Promega, Madison WI) to generate pGDF15–920-Luc. A fragment of 220 bp between −920 and −701 containing the distal p53 binding site was removed from pGDF15–920-Luc to generate pGDF15–700-Luc. To generate pGDF15–920mt-Luc, the proximal p53 binding site in the GDF15 promoter (between nucleotides +19 and +39) was deleted in pGDF15–920-Luc by the PCR based site-directed mutagenesis method as describe previously (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). The pGDF15–700mt-Luc was similarly generated. All GDF15 promoter constructs were confirmed by DNA sequencing. Cell Culture, Transfection, and Luciferase Assay—HCT116 and U2OS cell lines were obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, VA) and maintained according to the vendor's instructions. HCT116p53+/+ and HCT116p53–/– cells were kindly provided by Dr. Bert Vogelstein and maintained in McCoy 5A medium conditioned with 10% fetal bovine serum. Cells were transfected with Mirus TransIT-LT1 reagent (Mirus Bio, Madison, WI) overnight as previously described (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). For p53 reporter assays, cells in 12-well plates were transfected with plasmid DNAs containing 50 ng of p53-Luc, 0.2 μg of pCMVβ, and others as indicated. For GDF15 promoter assays, cells were transfected with 50 ng of reporter constructs and 0.1 μg of pCMVβ, plus 0.2 μg of pCI, pCI-p14ARF, pCI-p53, pCI-MEG3, or pCI-MEG3-del5 as indicated. Twenty-four hours after incubated with fresh culture medium, cells were lysed and luciferase activities were measured as previously described (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). The luciferase activity was finally normalized against the β-galactosidase activity from the same well. Northern and Western Blotting—Cells were lysed with TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) to isolate total RNA according to the manufacturer's instruction, or lysed with radioimmune precipitation assay buffer to obtain total protein as previously described (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). Northern blotting was performed to detect MEG3 transcripts using the NorthernMax kit from Ambion (Austin, TX). cDNA probes specific to MEG3 were labeled with [α-32P]dCTP using the Ready-To-Go DNA Labeling Beads from GE Healthcare (Piscataway, NJ). After electrophoresis, the ethidium bromide-stained gel was photographed, and the 28 S rRNA band was used as equal loading control. Western blotting was performed as described previously (27Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Choi A.P. Scolavino S. Zhang X. J. Biol. Chem. 2003; 278: 462-470Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (72) Google Scholar). The blot was probed with antibody DO-1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) to detect p53 protein. GDF15 was probed with anti-NAG-1 antibody from Millipore Upstate Biotechnology (Charlottesville, VA). p21CIP1 and MDM2 were probed with antibody F-5 and SMP14 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology), respectively. β-Actin was detected by probing the membrane with an anti-β-actin antibody from Sigma-Aldrich. MEG3 Reverse Transcription-PCR—Total RNA from normal colon mucosa and HCT116 cells was isolated using TRIzol reagent following the manufacturer's instructions. MEG3 transcripts were detected using OneStep reverse transcription-PCR kit from Qiagen. The primers used for reverse transcription-PCR were 5′-CCACTCCCAGTTCAATTACAGCTC-3′ (forward) and 5′-TAGTGCCCTCGTGAGGTGTAG-3′ (reverse). As a control, the transcript of β-actin was also detected. The primers were 5′-CATGTACGTTGCTATCCAGGC-3′ (forward) and 5′-CTCCTTAATGTCACGCACGAT-3′ (reverse). The PCR products were resolved by 2% agarose gel and visualized with ethidium bromide staining. BrdUrd Incorporation Assay—Cells were grown on coverslips in 6-well plates. After transfection, cells were labeled with 10 μm BrdUrd for 20 min and fixed with 3% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline for 10 min. The fixed cells were treated with 0.2% Triton X-100 in phosphate-buffered saline for 5 min followed by treatment with 2 n hydrochloric acid for 30 min. Cells were incubated with anti-BrdUrd antibody in incubation buffer from Roche Applied Science (Indianapolis, IN) for 1 h at 37 °C, followed by incubation with anti-mouse IgG-TRITC antibody (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA) for 30 min at 37 °C. Cells were washed with phosphate-buffered saline at least three times between each treatment. The coverslips were mounted with Vectashield Mounting media (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA). The number of BrdUrd labeled cells per 100 GFP-expressing cells was counted under a fluorescence microscope and designated as the BrdUrd-labeling index (BrdUrd-LI). BrdUrd-LI in cells transfected with pCMS-d2-MEG3 was designated as (BrdUrd-LI)MEG3, and BrdUrd-LI in cells transfected with pCMS-d2EGFP only was (BrdUrd-LI)GFP. The relative BrdUrd-LI for MEG3-transfected cells was calculated as follows: [(BrdUrd-LI)MEG3/(BrdUrd-LI)GFP] × 100. The relative BrdUrd-LI for cells transfected with blank vector pCMS-d2EGFP was 100. The relative BrdUrd-LI for cells transfected with other constructs was similarly calculated. ChIP Assay—The chromatin immunoprecipitation assay was performed with ChIP-IT kit from Active Motif following the manufacturer's instructions (Active Motif, Carlsbad, CA). HCT116p53+/+ cells in P100 culture dishes were transfected overnight with pCI, pCI-p14ARF, and pCI-MEG3, respectively. Twenty-four hours after transfection, cells were fixed with 1% formaldehyde. Cells were lysed and subsequently sonicated with a Branson 250 sonifier. Nine 15-s bursts of sonication (output was set at 3 and duty cycle at 30) were applied with 30-s pauses to avoid overheating. A portion of the sonicated lysates was used to purify chromatin DNA and used as input DNA. Lysates equal to 45 μg of chromatin DNA from each sample were used in immunoprecipitation with 3 μg of either normal rabbit IgG or an anti-p53 antibody (FL-393, Santa Cruz Biotechnology). The precipitated chromatin DNA was purified and subject to PCR analysis. Primers used to detect GDF15 promoter and p21CIP1 promoter are as follows. For GDF15 promoter DNA containing the distal p53 binding site, 5′-AGGTATTGCCATCTTGCCCAGACTTG-3′ (forward) and 5′-GCTCACCTTGAAGCCATCCTCACAG-3′ (reverse); for GDF15 promoter containing the proximal p53 binding site, 5′-CATCTGGTCAGTCCCAGCTCAGAG-3′ (forward) and 5′-GCAACTCTCGGAATCTGGAGTCTTCG-3′ (reverse); for p21CIP1 promoter containing distal p53 binding site, 5′-GCAACTCTCGGAATCTGGAGTCTTCG-3′ (forward) and 5′-TAGCCACCAGCCTCTTCTATGCCAG-3′ (reverse); for p21CIP1 promoter containing proximal p53 binding site, 5′-CCGAGGTCAGCTGCGTTAGAGG-3′ (forward) and 5′-TGCAGAGGATGGATTGTTCATCTGAACAG-3′ (reverse). MEG3 Activates p53 in Human Cancer Cells—The MEG3 gene contains 10 exons and is known to express multiple alternatively spliced transcripts (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar, 12Schuster-Gossler K. Bilinski P. Sado T. Ferguson-Smith A. Gossler A. Dev. Dyn. 1998; 212: 214-228Crossref PubMed Scopus (137) Google Scholar, 13Croteau S. Charron M.C. Latham K.E. Naumova A.K. Mamm. Genome. 2003; 14: 231-241Crossref PubMed Scopus (30) Google Scholar). We isolated five of them from a human fetal liver cDNA library as described previously (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar). Sequence analysis revealed that one of the cDNAs was reported previously as the human MEG3 transcript by Miyoshi et al. (GenBank™ NR_002766) (8Miyoshi N. Wagatsuma H. Wakana S. Shiroishi T. Nomura M. Aisaka K. Kohda T. Surani M.A. Kaneko-Ishino T. Ishino F. Genes Cells. 2000; 5: 211-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (331) Google Scholar). It contains sequences from all exons but 5, 6, and 7 (Fig. 1A). MEG3a, which we have previously reported (14Zhang X. Zhou Y. Mehta K.R. Danila D.C. Scolavino S. Johnson S.R. Klibanski A. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 2003; 88: 5119-5126Crossref PubMed Scopus (366) Google Scholar), contains an additional exon 6 compared with MEG3. The rest of the isolated cDNAs are new MEG3 isoforms, designated as MEG3b, MEG3c, and MEG3d, respectively (Fig. 1A). p53 has been shown to mediate functions of many tumor suppressors, such as ARF (22Sherr C.J. Weber J.D. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2000; 10: 94-99Crossref PubMed Scopus (572) Google Scholar), BRCA1 (23Ouchi T. Monteiro A.N. August A. Aaronson S.A. Hanafusa H. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1998; 95: 2302-2306Crossref PubMed Scopus (334) Google Scholar), PTEN (25Mayo L.D. Donner D.B. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2002; 27: 462-467Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (355) Google Scholar), and VLH (26Roe J.S. Kim H. Lee S.M. Kim S.T. Cho E.J. Youn H.D. Mol. Cell. 2006; 22: 395-405Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (198) Google Scholar). We hypothesized that p53 may also play a role in the anti-proliferative function of MEG3. To investigate this possibility, we transfected expression constructs for MEG3 and its isoforms into, HCT116, a human colon cancer cell line which contains wild-type (wt) p53 and does not express MEG3 (Fig. 1B). We found that cells transfected with MEG3 or any of its isoforms had significant increases in p53 protein levels (Fig. 1C). To investigate whether the accumulated p53 in MEG3-transfected cells is functional, we used a p53-responsive reporter construct (p53-Luc) to measure p53 activity after co-transfection with expression constructs of MEG3 and its isoforms into HCT116p53+/+ cells. p53-Luc contains multiple p53 binding sites at its promoter region controlling the luciferase cDNA and has been widely used in quantifying p53 activity. As shown in Fig. 1D, luciferase activities were significantly higher in HCT116p53+/+ cells transfected with any of the MEG3 expression constructs than in cells transfected with blank vectors (Fig. 1D). To exclude the possibility that transcription stimulation from p53-Luc by MEG3 and its isoforms is cell line-specific, we did similar p53 reporter assays in the osteosarcoma cell line U2OS, which expresses functional p53 (Fig. 1E). As shown in Fig. 1E, transfection of MEG3 and its isoforms significantly stimulates luciferase expression from p53-Luc (Fig. 1E). These data indicate that the p53 protein accumulated by transfection of MEG3 and its isoforms is functionally active. To ensure that the activation of luciferase expression from p53-Luc by MEG3 and its isoforms is p53-dependent, we did similar experiments in HCT116p53–/– cells, which are isogenic to HCT116p53+/+ cells and do not express functional p53. As a positive control, we co-transfected 50 ng of p53-Luc with 50 pg of a wt p53 expression construct and found that the induction of luciferase expression was ∼40-fold compared with that in cells transfected with vector only (Fig. 1F). In contrast, MEG3 and its isoforms failed to stimulate any luciferase expression even at 400 ng per transfection in these cells (Fig. 1F), indicating that stimulation of expression from p53-Luc by MEG3 and its isoforms is p53-dependent. p53 Activation Requires MEG3 Transcription—To investigate whether MEG3 and its isoforms activate p53, we introduced their expression into MEG3-deficient cells by transfection. One possibility was that p53 activation might be the result of a cellular stress response to the introduction of certain foreign DNAs, such as MEG3 and its isoforms. To exclude this possibility, we transfected HCT116p53+/+ cells with pCI-MEG3b-P, which was created by deletion of the CMV promoter from pCI-MEG3b. As expected, no MEG3b transcript was detected in cells transfected with pCI-MEG3b-P by northern blotting (Fig. 2A). Importantly, transfection of this plasmid also f