Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a relatively uncommon subtype of lymphoid malignancy and represents 5%–7% of malignant lymphoma in Western Europe. The annual incidence of this disease has increased during recent decades to 1–2/100 000 recently. MCL is more common in males than in women with a 3 : 1 ratio. Diagnosis should be based on a surgical specimen, preferably a lymph node biopsy. Core biopsies should only be carried out in patients without easily accessible lymph nodes (e.g. retroperitoneal bulk), keeping in mind the heterogeneity of MCL. In the rare cases with leukaemic manifestation only, a bone marrow (BM) biopsy may be sufficient if additional diagnostic measures are applied, immunophenotype (CD5+, CD19/20+), detection of t(11;14)(q13;q32) and overexpression of cyclin D1. Fine needle aspirations are inappropriate for a reliable evaluation of additional risk factors (cytology, cell proliferation). The histological report should give the diagnosis according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification and Ki-67 as the most established histomorphological risk factor [I, A] [1]. Most tumours have a classic morphology of small-medium sized cells with irregular nuclei. However, the malignant lymphocytes may present with a spectrum of morphological variants, including small round (resembling chronic lymphocytic leukaemia), marginal zone-like, pleomorphic and blastoid cells. In the updated WHO classification, a leukaemic non-nodal subtype has been characterised based on the clinical presentation usually with a more indolent clinical course [1.Swerdlow S.H. Campo E. Pileri S.A. et al.The 2016 revision of the World Health Organization classification of lymphoid neoplasms.Blood. 2016; 127: 2375-2390Crossref PubMed Scopus (4528) Google Scholar]. As only the minority of these cases is correctly diagnosed based on classical histology only, review by an expert haematopathologist is advised. In particular, additional immunohistochemistry for detection of cyclin D1 overexpression is mandatory. In the rare cyclin D1-negative cases, detection of SOX11 may help to establish the diagnosis [2.Mozos A. Royo C. Hartmann E. et al.SOX11 expression is highly specific for mantle cell lymphoma and identifies the cyclin D1-negative subtype.Haematologica. 2009; 94: 1555-1562Crossref PubMed Scopus (300) Google Scholar]. If possible, additional biopsy material should be stored freshly frozen to allow additional molecular analyses (currently still investigational). Since treatment may differ depending on the stage of the disease, initial staging should be thorough, particularly in the rare cases with non-bulky stages I and II (Table 1). Initial work-up should include a computed tomography (CT) scan of the neck, thorax, abdomen and pelvis, and a BM aspirate and biopsy (Table 2). Positron emission tomography (PET)-CT scan is especially recommended in the rare limited stages I/II, before localised radiotherapy (RT) [IV, C]. Gastrointestinal endoscopy is also recommended in these rare cases to detect asymptomatic involvement but otherwise only in symptomatic patients. Of note, when analysed, the majority of MCL patients will have gastrointestinal involvement.Table 1Lugano classification [4.Cheson B.D. Fisher R.I. Barrington S.F. et al.Recommendations for initial evaluation, staging and response assessment of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma – the Lugano Classification.J Clin Oncol. 2014; 32: 3059-3068Crossref PubMed Scopus (2815) Google Scholar]StageArea of involvementI (IE)One lymph node region or extranodal site (IE)II (IIE)Two or more lymph node regions or localised extranodal sites (IIE) on the same side of the diaphragmIIILymph node regions or lymphoid structures (e.g. thymus, Waldeyer’s ring) on both sides of the diaphragmIVDiffuse or disseminated extralymphatic organ involvement Open table in a new tab Table 2Diagnostic work-upHistoryB symptomsPhysical examinationWaldeyer’s ring, peripheral lymph nodes, liver, spleenLaboratory work-upBlood and differential countIn leukaemic cases: FACS (CD5/CD19/20+)FISH for t(11;14) recommendedLDH, uric acid, liver and renal functionElectrophoresis (optional: immune fixation)SerologyHepatitis B, C and HIV serologyImagingAbdominal ultrasoundCT neck, chest, abdomen, pelvisor PET-CTMRI only in selected locations (CNS)Bone marrowHistology (cyclin D1 immunohistochemistry)CytologyRecommended: FACS, FISH for t(11;14)Optional: PCR for IGH gene rearrangementToxicityElectrocardiogram, cardiac ultrasound(before anthracyclines, ASCT)Pulmonary function (before ASCT)Creatinine clearanceOptional: reproductive counselling in young patientsASCT, autologous stem cell transplantation; CNS, central nervous system; CT, computed tomography; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridisation; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PET, positron emission tomography. Open table in a new tab ASCT, autologous stem cell transplantation; CNS, central nervous system; CT, computed tomography; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridisation; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PET, positron emission tomography. Central nervous system (CNS) involvement is rare in asymptomatic patients at diagnosis, but a lumbar puncture may be considered in high-risk cases [at least two of the following risk factors: blastoid variant, elevated lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), impaired performance status or neurological symptoms] [III, C] [3.Cheah C.Y. George A. Giné E. et al.European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network. Central nervous system involvement in mantle cell lymphoma: clinical features, prognostic factors and outcomes from the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network.Ann Oncol. 2013; 24: 2119-2123Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (79) Google Scholar]. A full blood count, blood chemistry including LDH and uric acid, as well as screening tests for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B and C, are required. Staging is carried out according to the Lugano classification system (Table 1), with mention of bulky disease > 5 cm when appropriate [4.Cheson B.D. Fisher R.I. Barrington S.F. et al.Recommendations for initial evaluation, staging and response assessment of Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma – the Lugano Classification.J Clin Oncol. 2014; 32: 3059-3068Crossref PubMed Scopus (2815) Google Scholar]. The evaluation of the cell proliferation antigen Ki-67 is the most applicable method to evaluate cell proliferation, and is considered the most established biological risk factor in MCL. As the reproducibility of quantitative scores among pathologists may vary, a standardised method has been suggested [5.Klapper W. Hoster E. Determann O. et al.Ki-67 as a prognostic marker in mantle cell lymphoma-consensus guidelines of the pathology panel of the European MCL Network.J Hematop. 2009; 2: 103-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (133) Google Scholar]. For prognostic purposes, a combined MCL International Prognostic Index (MIPI-c) (Table 3; web-based calculator: www.european-mcl.net/de/clinical_mipi.php) has been established [I, A] [6.Hoster E. Dreyling M. Klapper W. et al.A new prognostic index (MIPI) for patients with advanced-stage mantle cell lymphoma.Blood. 2008; 111: 558-565Crossref PubMed Scopus (709) Google Scholar, 7.Hoster E. Rosenwald A. Berger F. et al.Prognostic value of Ki-67 index, cytology, and growth pattern in mantle-cell lymphoma: results from randomized trials of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network.J Clin Oncol. 2016; 34: 1386-1394Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar].Table 3MIPI and MIPI-c risk stratification [6.Hoster E. Dreyling M. Klapper W. et al.A new prognostic index (MIPI) for patients with advanced-stage mantle cell lymphoma.Blood. 2008; 111: 558-565Crossref PubMed Scopus (709) Google Scholar, 7.Hoster E. Rosenwald A. Berger F. et al.Prognostic value of Ki-67 index, cytology, and growth pattern in mantle-cell lymphoma: results from randomized trials of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network.J Clin Oncol. 2016; 34: 1386-1394Crossref PubMed Scopus (215) Google Scholar]PointsAge (years)ECOGLDH (ULN)WBC (109/L)0< 500–1< 0.67< 6700150–59–0.67–0.996700–9999260–692–41.00–1.4910 000–14 9993≥ 70–≥ 1.50≥ 15 000MIPI risk group (weight in MIPI-c)Ki-67 index (weight in MIPI-c)MIPI-c risk group (sum of weights)Low (0)< 30% (0)Low (0)Low (0)≥ 30% (1)Low-intermediate (1)Intermediate (1)< 30% (0)Low-intermediate (1)Intermediate (1)≥ 30% (1)High-intermediate (2)High (2)< 30% (0)High-intermediate (2)High (2)≥ 30% (1)High (3)For each prognostic factor, 0–3 points were given to each patient and points were summed up to a maximum of 11. Patients with 0–3 points in summary were classified as low-risk, patients with 4 to 5 points as intermediate-risk, and patients with 6–11 points as high-risk. ECOG performance status was weighted with 2 points if patients were unable to work or bedridden (ECOG 2–4). LDH was weighted according to the ratio to the ULN. Thus, for an ULN of 240 U/L, the limits were 180, 240 and 360 U/L for low-, intermediate- and high-risk groups, respectively.ECOG, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MIPI, mantle cell lymphoma international prognostic index; MIPI-c, combined MIPI; ULN, upper limit of normal range; WBC, white blood count. Open table in a new tab For each prognostic factor, 0–3 points were given to each patient and points were summed up to a maximum of 11. Patients with 0–3 points in summary were classified as low-risk, patients with 4 to 5 points as intermediate-risk, and patients with 6–11 points as high-risk. ECOG performance status was weighted with 2 points if patients were unable to work or bedridden (ECOG 2–4). LDH was weighted according to the ratio to the ULN. Thus, for an ULN of 240 U/L, the limits were 180, 240 and 360 U/L for low-, intermediate- and high-risk groups, respectively. ECOG, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; MIPI, mantle cell lymphoma international prognostic index; MIPI-c, combined MIPI; ULN, upper limit of normal range; WBC, white blood count. Most patients with MCL follow an aggressive clinical course. However, a subset of patients may exhibit a more indolent evolution. Most of these cases are commonly characterised by a leukaemic non-nodal presentation with BM involvement only and splenomegaly [1.Swerdlow S.H. Campo E. Pileri S.A. et al.The 2016 revision of the World Health Organization classification of lymphoid neoplasms.Blood. 2016; 127: 2375-2390Crossref PubMed Scopus (4528) Google Scholar, 8.Fernàndez V. Salamero O. Espinet B. et al.Genomic and gene expression profiling defines indolent forms of mantle cell lymphoma.Cancer Res. 2010; 70: 1408-1418Crossref PubMed Scopus (369) Google Scholar]. SOX11 negativity may help to identify these cases. In addition, conventional MCL (SOX11-positive) with low Ki-67 (≤ 10%) tend to have a more indolent course. However, additional TP53 mutations may cause an aggressive clinical evolution (Figure 1) [9.Nygren L. Baumgartner Wennerholm S. Klimkowska M. et al.Prognostic role of SOX11 in a population-based cohort of mantle cell lymphoma.Blood. 2012; 119: 4215-4223Crossref PubMed Scopus (129) Google Scholar]. Unfortunately, there are no markers that definitely predict indolent behaviour, but a short course of ‘watch and wait’ period under close observation seems to be appropriate in suspected indolent cases with low tumour burden [III, B] [10.Martin P. Chadburn A. Christos P. et al.Outcome of deferred initial therapy in mantle-cell lymphoma.J Clin Oncol. 2009; 27: 1209-1213Crossref PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar]. If treatment is required, recommendations for classical MCL apply. In the small proportion of patients with limited non-bulky stages I–II, RT (involved field, 30–36 Gy) has been suggested to achieve long-term remissions [11.Leitch H.A. Gascoyne R.D. Chhanabhai M. et al.Limited-stage mantle-cell lymphoma.Ann Oncol. 2003; 14: 1555-1561Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (85) Google Scholar]. In contrast, in a randomised study, all patients with early-stage MCL relapsed within 1 year [12.Engelhard M. Unterhalt M. Hansmann M. et al.Follicular lymphoma, immunocytoma, and mantle cell lymphoma: randomized evaluation of curative radiotherapy in limited stage nodal disease.Ann Oncol. 2008; 19: 418.Google Scholar]. Thus, a shortened conventional chemotherapy (ChT) induction followed by consolidation RT (similar to diffuse large cell lymphoma) may be the most appropriate treatment in these cases [IV, B]. In stage I–II patients with large tumour burden or adverse prognostic features, systemic therapy as indicated for advanced stages should be applied; consolidation RT may be considered depending on tumour location and expected side-effects [IV, B]. In all symptomatic patients and generally in cases with high tumour burden, therapy should be initiated at diagnosis [I, A]. The current therapeutic approach is based on clinical risk factors, symptoms and patient characteristics (Figure 2). Based on a median age of 65 years at first diagnosis, the majority of patients do not qualify for dose-intensified regimens. Three prospective first-line trials, a salvage trial and a systematic meta-analysis support an improved overall response, progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) if rituximab was added to ChT (Table 4) [I, A] [13.Schulz H. Bohlius J.F. Trelle S. et al.Immunochemotherapy with rituximab and overall survival in patients with indolent or mantle cell lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis.J Natl Cancer Inst. 2007; 99: 706-714Crossref PubMed Scopus (324) Google Scholar].Table 4Conventional first-line immunochemotherapy in MCL (phase III studies)AuthorStudy featuresAssessable patientsTherapeutic regimenORR% (CR%)Median PFS (months)2-Year OSLenz et al. [14.Lenz G. Dreyling M. Hoster E. et al.Immunochemotherapy with rituximab and cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone significantly improves response and time to treatment failure, but not long-term outcome in patients with previously untreated mantle cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the German Low Grade Lymphoma Study Group (GLSG).J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 1984-1992Crossref PubMed Scopus (520) Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised112CHOP versus R-CHOP75 (7) versus 94 (34)21 versus 14 (TTF)76% versus 76%Herold et al. [54.Herold M. Haas A. et al.Immunochemotherapy (R-MCP) in advanced mantle cell lymphoma is not superior to chemotherapy (MCP) alone - 50 months update of the OSHO phase III study (OSHO#39).Ann Oncol. 2008; 19: iv85-iv86Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised90MCP versus R-MCP63 (15) versus 71 (32)18 versus 2052% versus 55% (4-year OS)Kluin-Nelemans et al. [15.Kluin-Nelemans H.C. Hoster E. Hermine O. et al.Treatment of older patients with mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 520-531Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised485R-CHOP versus R-FC86 (34) versus 78 (40)58% versus 29% (4-year DOR)62% versus 47% (4-year OS)R versus IFNα79% versus 67% (4-year OS)Rummel et al. [16.Rummel M.J. Niederle N. Maschmeyer G. et al.Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial.Lancet. 2013; 381: 1203-1210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1062) Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised514 (94 MCL)R-CHOP versus BR91 (30) versus 93 (40)21 versus 35No differencesRobak et al. [17.Robak T. Huang H. Jin J. et al.Bortezomib-based therapy for newly diagnosed mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2015; 372: 944-953Crossref PubMed Scopus (294) Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised487R-CHOP versus VR-CAP89 (42) versus 92 (53)16 versus 3154% versus 64% (4 years)BR, bendamustine and rituximab; CHOP, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone; CR, complete response; DOR, duration of response; FC, fludarabine and cyclophosphamide; IFNα, interferon alpha; MCL, mantle cell lymphoma; MCP, melphalan, chlorambucil and prednisone; ORR, objective response rate; OS, overall survival; PFS, progression-free survival; R, rituximab; TTF, time to failure; VR-CAP, bortezomib in combination with rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and prednisone. Open table in a new tab BR, bendamustine and rituximab; CHOP, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone; CR, complete response; DOR, duration of response; FC, fludarabine and cyclophosphamide; IFNα, interferon alpha; MCL, mantle cell lymphoma; MCP, melphalan, chlorambucil and prednisone; ORR, objective response rate; OS, overall survival; PFS, progression-free survival; R, rituximab; TTF, time to failure; VR-CAP, bortezomib in combination with rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and prednisone. Rituximab in combination with ChT such as CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine and prednisone) or bendamustine should be used [I, B] [14.Lenz G. Dreyling M. Hoster E. et al.Immunochemotherapy with rituximab and cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone significantly improves response and time to treatment failure, but not long-term outcome in patients with previously untreated mantle cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the German Low Grade Lymphoma Study Group (GLSG).J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 1984-1992Crossref PubMed Scopus (520) Google Scholar, 15.Kluin-Nelemans H.C. Hoster E. Hermine O. et al.Treatment of older patients with mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 520-531Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar, 16.Rummel M.J. Niederle N. Maschmeyer G. et al.Bendamustine plus rituximab versus CHOP plus rituximab as first-line treatment for patients with indolent and mantle-cell lymphomas: an open-label, multicentre, randomised, phase 3 non-inferiority trial.Lancet. 2013; 381: 1203-1210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1062) Google Scholar]. Recently, a combination with bortezomib achieved almost doubled median PFS but resulted in significant thrombocytopaenia [17.Robak T. Huang H. Jin J. et al.Bortezomib-based therapy for newly diagnosed mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2015; 372: 944-953Crossref PubMed Scopus (294) Google Scholar]. Rituximab in combination with cyclophosphamide, vincristine and prednisone (R-CVP) resulted in inferior response rates and PFS [18.Flinn I.W. van der Jagt R. Kahl B.S. et al.Randomized trial of bendamustine-rituximab or R-CHOP/R-CVP in first-line treatment of indolent NHL or MCL: the BRIGHT study.Blood. 2014; 123: 2944-2952Crossref PubMed Scopus (449) Google Scholar]. Purine analogue-based schemes, rituximab with fludarabine and cyclophosphamide (R-FC) or with fludarabine and mitoxantrone (R-FM), are also discouraged due to early failures and long-lasting myelosuppression [I, D] [15.Kluin-Nelemans H.C. Hoster E. Hermine O. et al.Treatment of older patients with mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 520-531Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar]. The addition of high-dose cytarabine (HD-AraC) to CHOP is currently being tested in elderly patients. Recently, rituximab, bendamustine and cytarabine (R-BAC) has been explored also in first-line therapy [19.Visco C. Chiappella A. Nassi L. et al.Rituximab, bendamustine, and low-dose cytarabine as induction therapy in elderly patients with mantle cell lymphoma: a multicentre, phase 2 trial from Fondazione Italiana Linfomi.Lancet Haematol. 2017; 4: e15-e23Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar]. In frail patients, a less intense immunochemotherapy, chlorambucil or vincristine, doxorubicin, oral dexamethasone and chlorambucil (VADC) or prednisone, etoposide, procarbazine and cyclophosphamide (PEP-C) may be considered, aiming primarily at palliation [II, B]. However, targeted therapy exhibiting a low toxicity profile might be used in this population [20.Ruan J. Martin P. Shah B. et al.Lenalidomide plus rituximab as initial treatment for mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2015; 373: 1835-1844Crossref PubMed Scopus (179) Google Scholar]. Antibody monotherapy [rituximab, radioimmunotherapy (RIT)] achieves only moderate response rates and is therefore not recommended [III, B] [21.Ghielmini M. Schmitz S.F. Cogliatti S. et al.Effect of single-agent rituximab given at the standard schedule or as prolonged treatment in patients with mantle cell lymphoma: a study of the Swiss Group for Clinical Cancer Research (SAKK).J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 705-711Crossref PubMed Scopus (165) Google Scholar]. In patients with positive hepatitis B serology, prophylactic antiviral medication and/or virus load monitoring is strongly recommended [I, A] [22.Mallet V. van Bömmel F. Doerig C. et al.Management of viral hepatitis in patients with haematological malignancy and in patients undergoing haemopoietic stem cell transplantation: recommendations of the 5th European Conference on Infections in Leukaemia (ECIL-5).Lancet Infect Dis. 2016; 16: 606-617Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar]. Rituximab maintenance significantly improves PFS and OS after rituximab and CHOP (R-CHOP) [I, A] and PFS in a systematic meta-analysis [15.Kluin-Nelemans H.C. Hoster E. Hermine O. et al.Treatment of older patients with mantle-cell lymphoma.N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 520-531Crossref PubMed Scopus (405) Google Scholar, 23.LVidal, AGafter-Gvili, MHDreyling Maintenance therapy for patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) - a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Blood 2016; (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts); 128: 1802.Google Scholar]. RIT consolidation also prolongs PFS after ChT, but its benefit seems to be inferior in comparison to rituximab maintenance [II, B] [24.Smith M.R. Li H. Gordon L. et al.Phase II study of rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone immunochemotherapy followed by yttrium-90-ibritumomab tiuxetan in untreated mantle-cell lymphoma: Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Study E1499.J Clin Oncol. 2012; 30: 3119-3126Crossref PubMed Scopus (68) Google Scholar]. Although no curative treatment is available for MCL so far, an intensive approach, e.g. by autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT), has been demonstrated to induce higher response and survival rates in fit patients, independently of the addition of rituximab [I, B] (Table 5) [25.Dreyling M. Lenz G. Hoster E. et al.Early consolidation by myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission significantly prolongs progression-free survival in mantle-cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the European MCL Network.Blood. 2005; 105: 2677-2684Crossref PubMed Scopus (481) Google Scholar].Table 5Dose-intensified first-line therapy in MCL (phase II/III trials)Study featuresAssessable patientsTherapeutic regimenORR% (CR%)Median PFS (years)Median OS (years)Dropout rateTRMSecondary tumour rateASCT-based regimensDreyling et al. [25.Dreyling M. Lenz G. Hoster E. et al.Early consolidation by myeloablative radiochemotherapy followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in first remission significantly prolongs progression-free survival in mantle-cell lymphoma: results of a prospective randomized trial of the European MCL Network.Blood. 2005; 105: 2677-2684Crossref PubMed Scopus (481) Google Scholar, 26.Hoster E. Metzner B. Forstpointner R. et al.Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation and Addition of Rituximab Independently Prolong Response Duration in Advanced Stage Mantle Cell Lymphoma.Blood. 2009; 114 (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts): 880Crossref Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised122CHOP + TBI + ASCT versus CHOP + TBI + IFNα98 (81) versus 99 (37)3.3 versus 1.4NR (83% 3-year OS) versus NR (77% 3-year OS)13% versus N/A5% versus 0%5%Hermine et al. [28.Hermine O. Hoster E. Walewski J. et al.Addition of high-dose cytarabine to immunochemotherapy before autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients aged 65 years or younger with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL Younger): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network.Lancet. 2016; 388: 565-575Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised455R-CHOP + TBI + ASCT versus R-CHOP/R-DHAP + HD-AraC + ASCT98 (63) versus 99 (61)3.8 versus 7.36.8 versus NRN/A4%N/AEskelund et al. [55.Eskelund C.W. Kolstad A. Jerkeman M. et al.15-year follow-up of the Second Nordic Mantle Cell Lymphoma trial (MCL2): prolonged remissions without survival plateau.Br J Haematol. 2016; 175: 410-418Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar]Phase II160R-Maxi-CHOP + HD-AraC + ASCT96 (54)7.4NR (64% 10-year OS)9%5%4%Delarue et al. [56.Delarue R. Haioun C. Ribrag V. et al.CHOP and DHAP plus rituximab followed by autologous stem cell transplantation in mantle cell lymphoma: a phase 2 study from the Groupe d’Etude des Lymphomes de l’Adulte.Blood. 2013; 121: 48-53Crossref PubMed Scopus (210) Google Scholar]Phase II60R-CHOP/R-DHAP + HD-AraC + ASCT100 (96)6.9NR (75% 5-year OS)18%1.5%18%Le Gouill et al. [27.SLe Gouill, CThieblemont, LObericRituximab maintenance after autologous stem cell transplantation prolongs survival in younger patients with mantle cell lymphoma. Blood 2016; (ASH Annual Meeting Abstracts); 128: 145.Google Scholar]Phase III, randomised299R-DHAP + ASCT versus R-DHAP + ASCT + R maintenance83 (77)NR (73% 3-year PFS) versus NR (89% 3-year PFS)NR (84% 3-year OS) versus NR (93% 3-year OS)N/AN/AN/ANon-ASCT-based regimensRomaguera et al. [31.Romaguera J.E. Fayad L. Rodriguez M.A. et al.High rate of durable remissions after treatment of newly diagnosed aggressive mantle-cell lymphoma with rituximab plus hyper-CVAD alternating with rituximab plus high-dose methotrexate and cytarabine.J Clin Oncol. 2005; 23: 7013-7023Crossref PubMed Scopus (472) Google Scholar]Phase II, monocentric97R-hyper-CVADN/A4.6NR (64% 10-year OS)29%8%5%Merli et al. [32.Merli F. Luminari S. Ilariucci F. et al.Rituximab plus HyperCVAD alternating with high dose cytarabine and methotrexate for the initial treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma, a multicentre trial from Gruppo Italiano Studio Linfomi.Br J Haematol. 2012; 156: 346-353Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar]Phase II, multicentric60R-hyper-CVAD83 (72)NR (73% 5-year PFS)NR (61% 5-year OS)63%6.5%1.5%Bernstein et al. [33.Bernstein S.H. Epner E. Unger J.M. et al.A phase II multicenter trial of hyperCVAD MTX/Ara-C and rituximab in patients with previously untreated mantle cell lymphoma; SWOG 0213.Ann Oncol. 2013; 24: 1587-1593Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (100) Google Scholar]Phase II, multicentric49R-hyper-CVAD86 (55)4.86.839%2%4%ASCT, autologous stem cell transplantation; CHOP, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone; DHAP, dexamethasone, cytarabine and cisplatin; CR, complete response; HD-AraC, high dose cytarabine; hyper-CVAD, hyperfractionated cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, dexamethasone alternating with high-dose methotrexate and cytarabine; IFNα, interferon alpha; Maxi-CHOP, maximum-strength CHOP; MCL, mantle cell lymphoma; N/A, not applicable; NR, not reached; ORR, objective response rate; OS, overall survival; PFS, progression-free survival; R, rituximab; TBI, total body irradiation; TRM, transplant-related mortality. Open table in a new tab ASCT, autologous stem cell transplantation; CHOP, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone; DHAP, dexamethasone, cytarabine and cisplatin; CR, complete response; HD-AraC, high dose cytarabine; hyper-CVAD, hyperfractionated cyclophosphamide, vincristine, doxorubicin, dexamethasone alternating with high-dose methotrexate and cytarabine; IFNα, interferon alpha; Maxi-CHOP, maximum-strength CHOP; MCL, mantle cell lymphoma; N/A, not applicable; NR, not reached; ORR, objective response rate; OS, overall survival; PFS, progression-free survival; R, rituximab; TBI, total body irradiation; TRM, transplant-related mortality. In addition, a randomised trial confirmed that a cytarabine-containing induction achieves a significantly improved median time to treatment failure (P = 0.038) [I, B] [28.Hermine O. Hoster E. Walewski J. et al.Addition of high-dose cytarabine to immunochemotherapy before autologous stem-cell transplantation in patients aged 65 years or younger with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL Younger): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network.Lancet. 2016; 388: 565-575Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (267) Google Scholar]. In contrast, an induction-based on HD-AraC alone achieves only insufficient response rates [III, D] [29.Laurell A. Kolstad A. Jerkeman M. et al.High dose cytarabine with rituximab is not enough in first-line treatment of mantle cell lymphoma with high proliferation: early closure of the Nordic Lymphoma Group Mantle Cell Lymphoma 5 trial.Leuk Lymphoma. 2014; 55: 1206-1208Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar]. In a retrospective study comparison of the Nordic, HOVON and MCL Younger protocols, total body irradiation (TBI) before ASCT was confirmed to be beneficial only in partial response (PR) patients [II, B] [30.Hoster E. Geisler C.H. Doorduijn J. et al.Total body irradiation after high-dose cytarabine in mantle cell lymphoma: A comparison of Nordic MCL2, HOVON-45, and European MCL Younger trials.Leukemia. 2016; 30: 1428-1430Crossref PubMed Scopus (14) Google Scholar].