abdominal aortic aneurysm Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study angiotensin converting enzyme Asymptomatic Carotid Emboli Study asymptomatic carotid stenosis Asymptomatic Carotid Stenosis and Risk of Stroke Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (first trial) Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (second trial) Asymptomatic Carotid Trial (first trial) Asymptomatic Severe Atherosclerotic Carotid Artery Stenosis at Higher than average Risk of Ipsilateral Stroke atrial fibrillation American Heart Association AMBulatory Dual Anti-Platelet absolute risk reduction age-related white-matter change bis die (twice daily) bare metal stent best medical therapy blood pressure coronary artery bypass graft coronary artery disease Clopidogrel versus Aspirin in Patients at Risk of Ischaemic Events Carotid Acculink/Accunet Post-Approval Trial to Uncover Unanticipated or Rare Events Carotid Artery Revascularization and Endarterectomy carotid artery stenting Carotid and Vertebral Artery Transluminal Angioplasty Study common carotid artery calcium channel blocker congestive cardiac failure carotid endarterectomy contrast enhanced magnetic resonance angiography Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists Collaboration common femoral artery Clopidogrel in High-risk patients with Acute Nondisabling Cerebrovascular Events Clopidogrel for High Atherothrombotic Risk and Ischemic Stabilization, Management, and Avoidance confidence interval Centre for Medicare and Medicaid Services cranial nerve injury chronic obstructive pulmonary disease cerebral protection device Carotid Revascularization versus Stenting Trial carotid sinus nerve Carotid Stent Trialists Collaboration computed tomography computed tomography angiography cerebral vascular reserve dual antiplatelet therapy drug eluting stent digital subtraction angiography Duplex ultrasound diffusion weighted imaging external carotid artery extracranial intracranial European Carotid Surgery Trial end-diastolic velocity electroencephalography European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery Ear, Nose, and Throat surgeon European Society of Cardiology European-Australasian Stroke Prevention in Reversible Ischaemia Trial European Stroke Prevention Study-2 European Society for Vascular Surgery Endarterectomy versus Stenting in patients with Symptomatic Severe carotid Stenosis fluid-attenuated inversion recovery general anaesthesia General Anaesthesia versus Local Anaesthesia Guidelines Committee high dependency unit hazard ratio hyperperfusion syndrome Health Technology Assessment Health Related Quality of Life internal carotid artery intracerebral haemorrhage International Carotid Stenting Study intima media thickness in-stent restenosis intravenous thrombolysis low-density lipoprotein low molecular weight heparin locoregional anaesthesia middle cerebral artery multidisciplinary team microembolic signals myocardial infarction Mini Mental State Examination magnetic resonance angiography magnetic resonance imaging North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial National Institute for Health and Care Excellence National Surgical Quality Improvement Program non ST elevation myocardial infarction odds ratio peripheral arterial disease posterior cerebral artery proton pump inhibitor Prevention Regimen for Effectively Avoiding Second Strokes peak systolic velocity percutaneous transluminal angioplasty polytetrafluoroethylene rapid access stroke prevention randomised controlled trial recombinant tissue plasminogen activator relative risk relative risk increase relative risk reduction Stenting & Angioplasty with Protection in Patients at High Risk for Endarterectomy Stenting and Aggressive Medical Management for Preventing Recurrent Stroke and Intracranial Stenosis Society of Vascular Surgery Stent Protected Angioplasty versus Carotid Endarterectomy Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels Stenting of Symptomatic Atherosclerotic Lesions in the Vertebral or Intracranial Arteries Symptomatic Veterans Affairs Carotid Study transient ischaemic attack transcranial Doppler US Preventive Services Taskforce Veteran's Affairs Co-operative Study vertebral artery Vertebral Artery Stenting Trial Vertebral Artery Ischaemia Stenting Trial The Vascular Surgery Group of New England Writing Group ❖Updated analysis of evidence supporting the prevention of stroke in patients with asymptomatic and symptomatic carotid disease.❖New section incorporating evidence supporting the prevention of stroke in patients with atherosclerotic vertebral artery disease.❖New sections on screening for asymptomatic carotid disease and the potential role of carotid interventions in preventing dementia.❖New section on the evidence supporting rapid interventions in recently symptomatic patients and the timing of interventions after thrombolysis.❖New section on the evidence supporting patching, shunting, endarterectomy method, protamine reversal, treatment of coils and kinks, antegrade versus retrojugular exposure, sinus nerve blockade, and the role of monitoring.❖New section on the evidence supporting various carotid artery stenting techniques including adjuvant medical therapy, wires, catheters, and stents, and cerebral protection devices.❖New section on the evidence for managing complications following carotid interventions including stroke, hypotension, hypertension, haematoma, patch infection, and restenosis.❖New section on the management of concurrent carotid and cardiac disease.❖New section on the management of patients with asymptomatic carotid stenoses undergoing major non-cardiac surgical procedures.❖New section on managing patients with occlusive disease of the proximal common carotid artery and innominate artery. The European Society for Vascular Surgery (ESVS) has prepared guidelines for treating patients with atherosclerotic carotid and vertebral artery (VA) disease. This does not include non-atherosclerotic conditions such as fibromuscular dysplasia, dissection, arteritis, or trauma. Potential users include vascular surgeons, neurologists, stroke physicians, angiologists, primary care physicians, cardiologists, and interventional radiologists. Guidelines promote standards of care, based on evidence; however, they should not be viewed as the legal standard of care. This document is a “guiding principle” and care given depends on the individual patient (presentation, comorbidities, age) and treatment setting (techniques available, local expertise). Writing Group (WG) members were selected by the ESVS to represent clinicians involved in the treatment of carotid and VA disease. WG members provided disclosure statements regarding relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest, which are available at ESVS headquarters. WG members received no financial support from any pharmaceutical device, or surgical industry. The WG held an introductory meeting in Copenhagen in November 2014, at which the list of topics and author tasks were allocated. The WG agreed a literature search strategy using Medline, Embase, Cardiosource Clinical Trials Database, and the Cochrane Library databases up to December 31, 2016. Reference checking and journal hand searching added other literature. Only peer-reviewed, published literature and studies presenting predefined outcomes were considered. The selection process followed the “pyramid of evidence,” with systematic reviews and meta-analyses at the top, then randomised controlled trials (RCTs), then observational studies. Case reports and abstracts were excluded, leaving expert opinion at the bottom. The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) system was used for grading levels of evidence and class of recommendation. The letter A, B, or C reflects the level of evidence (Fig. 1) and each recommendation was graded class I, IIa, IIb, or III (Fig. 2). WG members reviewed each chapter of the evolving guideline on several occasions. Following preparation of the first draft, WG members participated in a teleconference at which the wording/grading of each recommendation was reviewed. If there was no unanimous agreement, discussions were held to decide how a consensus might be achieved. If this failed, then the wording, grade, and level of evidence was secured via a majority vote of the WG members.Figure 2Class of recommendation.View Large Image Figure ViewerDownload Hi-res image Download (PPT) The guidelines underwent external review by Guideline Committee (GC) members and other independent experts in the field of cerebrovascular disease. Each draft was revised according to reviewer suggestions and the final document submitted to the European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery (EJVES) on June 12, 2017. The GC proposes that these guidelines should be updated in 2021. The WG adopted the prevention classification proposed by the Institute of Work and Health.1www.iwh.on.ca/wrmb/primary-secondary-and-tertiary-prevention. [Accessed 17 April 2017].Google Scholar Primary prevention aims to prevent carotid and VA disease from ever developing (outside the scope of these guidelines). Secondary prevention aims at reducing the clinical impact of asymptomatic carotid and VA stenoses (i.e. stenoses are present and the aim is to prevent them from causing a transient ischaemic attack [TIA] or stroke). The goal of tertiary prevention is to reduce the risk of recurrent TIA or stroke in patients who present with a TIA or stroke secondary to carotid or VA stenoses. In a European population of 715 million, about 1.4 million strokes occur each year.2Truelsen B. Piechowski-Jozwiak T. Bonita R. Mathersa C. Bogousslavsky J. Boysen G. Stroke incidence and prevalence in Europe.Eur Neurol. 2006; 13: 581-598Crossref Scopus (333) Google Scholar Stroke causes 1.1 million deaths annually in Europe, making it the second commonest cause of death.3Nichols M, Townsend N, Luengo-Fernandez R, Leal J, Scarborough P, Rayner M. European cardiovascular disease statistics 2012. Sophia Antipolis: European Heart Network, Brussels, European Society of Cardiology. www.escardio.org/static_file/.../EU-Cardiovascular-disease-statistics-2012.pdf. [Accessed 20 July 2017].Google Scholar Over half of stroke survivors remain dependent on others for some aspect of everyday activities.4Royal College of Physicians National Sentinel Stroke Clinical Audit 2010 Round 7. Public Report for England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Prepared on behalf of the Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party May 2011; p. 43.Google Scholar Stroke imposes an enormous financial burden on health systems and caregivers. In Europe, annual stroke costs exceed 38 billion Euros.3Nichols M, Townsend N, Luengo-Fernandez R, Leal J, Scarborough P, Rayner M. European cardiovascular disease statistics 2012. Sophia Antipolis: European Heart Network, Brussels, European Society of Cardiology. www.escardio.org/static_file/.../EU-Cardiovascular-disease-statistics-2012.pdf. [Accessed 20 July 2017].Google Scholar For three decades, a stroke diagnosis has been based on the World Health Organization (WHO) definition of a focal, occasionally global, loss of neurological function lasting >24 hours (or leading to death) and which has a vascular aetiology. A TIA was defined in a similar manner, but the duration was <24 hours.5Aho K. Harmsen P. Hatano S. Marquardsen J. Smirnov V.E. Strasser T. Cerebrovascular disease in the community: results of a WHO collaborative study.Bull World Health Organ. 1980; 58: 113-130PubMed Google Scholar Brain imaging with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has shown that many TIA patients have evidence of acute infarction (particularly when symptoms lasted several hours) and this led to proposals that the classical definitions of stroke/TIA should be revised. One revised definition of TIA proposed by the American Heart Association (AHA) is “a brief episode of neurologic dysfunction resulting from focal temporary cerebral ischaemia, which is not associated with acute cerebral infarction.” Ischaemic stroke is defined as “an episode of neurologic dysfunction caused by focal cerebral or retinal infarction, where infarction is defined as brain or retinal cell death, attributable to ischaemia, based on neuropathologic, neuroimaging, and/or clinical evidence of permanent injury.” Silent infarction is defined as “imaging or neuropathological evidence of cerebral/retinal infarction without a history of acute neurological dysfunction attributable to the lesion.”6Sacco R.L. Kasner S.E. Broderick J.P. Caplan L.R. Connors J.J. Culebras A. et al.An updated definition of stroke for the 21st century. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association.Stroke. 2013; 44: 2064-2089Crossref PubMed Scopus (494) Google Scholar This “tissue-based” definition of TIA is not applied in all healthcare settings, especially outside the USA, because the definition is dependent on the type of neuroimaging performed (computed tomography [CT], MRI) and the availability and timing of such imaging. Accordingly, the clinical (WHO) definition has been used throughout these guidelines.5Aho K. Harmsen P. Hatano S. Marquardsen J. Smirnov V.E. Strasser T. Cerebrovascular disease in the community: results of a WHO collaborative study.Bull World Health Organ. 1980; 58: 113-130PubMed Google Scholar The principal causes of ischaemic, carotid territory stroke are thromboembolism from the internal carotid artery (ICA) or middle cerebral artery (MCA) (25%), small vessel intracranial disease (25%), cardiac embolism (20%), other specified rarer causes (5%), and unknown causes despite investigation (25%).7Ay H. Arsava E.M. Andsberg G. Benner T. Brown R.D. Chapman S.N. et al.Pathogenic ischemic stroke phenotypes in the NINDS-stroke genetics network.Stroke. 2014; 45: 3589-3596Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar Overall, about 10–15% of all strokes follow thromboembolism from a previously asymptomatic ICA stenosis >50%.8Naylor A.R. Why is the management of asymptomatic carotid disease so controversial?.The Surgeon. 2015; 13: 34-43Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar The European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST)9European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative GroupMRC European Carotid Surgery Trial: interim results for symptomatic patients with severe (70–99%) or with mild (0–29%) carotid stenosis. European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group.Lancet. 1991; 337: 1235-1243Abstract PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar and the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial (NASCET)10North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial CollaboratorsBeneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high grade carotid stenosis.N Engl J Med. 1991; 325: 445-453Crossref PubMed Google Scholar used different methods for measuring stenosis severity (Fig. 3). Both used minimum residual luminal diameter as the numerator. In ECST, the denominator was the estimated vessel diameter where the residual luminal diameter was measured (usually the carotid bulb). In NASCET, the denominator was the diameter of a disease-free ICA segment above the stenosis, where the vessel walls were approximately parallel. Each method provides different measures of stenosis severity and this has been a source of confusion as to whether interventions should be based on “50%” or “70%” thresholds. A 50% NASCET stenosis is equivalent to a 75% ECST stenosis. A 70% NASCET stenosis equates to an 85% ECST stenosis.11Rothwell P.M. Gibson R.J. Slattery J. Sellar R.J. Warlow C.P. on behalf of the ECST Collaborative GroupEquivalence of measurements of carotid stenosis: a comparison of three methods on 1001 angiograms.Stroke. 1994; 25: 2435-2439Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Some units remain uncertain about which measurement method is being used, and this could lead to inappropriate patient selection (or exclusion) from interventions.12Walker J. Naylor A.R. Ultrasound based diagnosis of ‘carotid stenosis >70%’: an audit of UK practice.Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2006; 31: 487-490Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar The NASCET measurement method has been adopted by the WG throughout these guidelines, unless stipulated otherwise. There is one situation in which the ECST measurement method has important advantages over NASCET. The NASCET method does not permit reliable measurement of stenosis severity in patients with large volume plaques within dilated carotid bulbs. Here, the residual luminal diameter may be only slightly less than that of the distal ICA. In this situation, the NASCET measurement method will record a <50% stenosis, whereas the ECST method will measure this as being >70%. In this rare situation, recently symptomatic patients with large volume plaques consistent with an ECST >70% stenosis should be considered for revascularisation. When ECST/NASCET were randomising patients, everyone underwent intra-arterial angiography. This has now been abandoned because of angiography-related stroke. In the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study (ACAS), the 30-day death/stroke rate was 2.3% after CEA, but about half of these strokes (1.2%) were angiographic related.13Executive Committee for the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis.JAMA. 1995; 273: 1421-1428Crossref PubMed Google Scholar Duplex ultrasound (DUS) is usually the first-line imaging modality because of its low cost and accessibility. B-mode imaging is combined with colour flow, as well as the ability to undertake Doppler flow velocity measurements. Table 1 details DUS criteria for defining stenosis thresholds using peak systolic velocity (PSV), end-diastolic velocity (EDV) and their ratios in the ICA and common carotid artery (CCA), based on the NASCET measurement method.14Oates C. Naylor A.R. Hartshorne T. Charles S.M. Humphries K. Aslam M. et al.Reporting carotid ultrasound investigations in the United Kingdom.Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2009; 37: 251-261Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google ScholarTable 1Diagnostic velocity criteria for NASCET-based carotid stenosis measurement.Reproduced with permission from Oates C, Naylor AR, Hartshorne T, Charles SM, Humphries K, Aslam M, Khodabaksh P. Reporting carotid ultrasound investigations in the United Kingdom. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2009;37:251–61.% stenosisNASCETPSV ICAcm/sPSVICA/PSVCCA ratioSt Mary's ratio15Nicolaides A.N. Shifrin E.G. Bradbury A. Dhanjil S. Griffin M. Belcaro G. et al.Angiographic and Duplex grading of internal carotid stenosis: can we overcome the confusion.J Endovasc Surg. 1996; 3: 158-165Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google ScholarPSVICA/EDVCCA<50%<12516Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar<216Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar<850–69%≥12516Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar2.0–416Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar8–1060–69%11–1370–79%≥23016Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar≥416Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar14–2180–89%22–29>90% but not near occlusion≥40016Grant E.G. Benson C.B. Moneta G.L. Alexandrov A.V. Baker J.D. Bluth E.I. et al.Carotid artery stenosis: grayscale and Doppler ultrasound diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference.Radiology. 2003; 229: 340-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar≥517Filis K.A. Arko F.R. Johnson B.L. Pipinos II, Harris E.J. Olcott C. et al.Duplex ultrasound criteria for defining the severity of carotid stenosis.Ann Vasc Surg. 2002; 16: 413-421Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar≥30Near-occlusionHigh, low – string flowVariableVariableOcclusionNo flowNot applicableNot applicable Open table in a new tab The advantage of computed tomographic angiography (CTA) and MR angiography (MRA) is the ability to simultaneously image the aortic arch, supra-aortic trunks, carotid bifurcation, distal ICA, and the intracranial circulation, which is mandatory if a patient is being considered for carotid artery stenting (CAS). Contrast-enhanced MRA (CEMRA) has a higher accuracy than non-contrast MRA techniques (time of flight), but requires administration of a paramagnetic contrast agent such as gadolinium. In a Health Technology Assessment (HTA) meta-analysis, DUS, MRA, and CTA were equivalent for detecting significant ICA stenoses.18Wardlaw J.M. Chappell F.M. Stevenson M. De Nigris E. Thomas S. Gillard J. et al.Accurate, practical and cost-effective assessment of carotid stenosis in the UK.Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-182Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar Catheter angiography is now rarely required, unless there are discrepancies on non-invasive imaging. The HTA advise that where centres rely on DUS alone prior to CEA, the patient should undergo a second corroborative DUS scan, preferably by a second operator.Tabled 1Recommendation 1ClassLevelReferencesDuplex ultrasound (as first-line), computed tomographic angiography and/or magnetic resonance angiography are recommended for evaluating the extent and severity of extracranial carotid stenosesIA18Wardlaw J.M. Chappell F.M. Stevenson M. De Nigris E. Thomas S. Gillard J. et al.Accurate, practical and cost-effective assessment of carotid stenosis in the UK.Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-182Crossref Scopus (99) Google ScholarRecommendation 2When carotid endarterectomy is being considered, it is recommended that Duplex ultrasound stenosis estimation be corroborated by computed tomographic angiography or magnetic resonance angiography, or by a repeat Duplex ultrasound performed by a second operatorIA18Wardlaw J.M. Chappell F.M. Stevenson M. De Nigris E. Thomas S. Gillard J. et al.Accurate, practical and cost-effective assessment of carotid stenosis in the UK.Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-182Crossref Scopus (99) Google ScholarRecommendation 3When carotid stenting is being considered, it is recommended that any Duplex ultrasound study be followed by computed tomographic angiography or magnetic resonance angiography which will provide additional information on the aortic arch, as well as the extra- and intracranial circulationIA18Wardlaw J.M. Chappell F.M. Stevenson M. De Nigris E. Thomas S. Gillard J. et al.Accurate, practical and cost-effective assessment of carotid stenosis in the UK.Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-182Crossref Scopus (99) Google ScholarRecommendation 4Units who base management decisions on Duplex ultrasound stenosis measurement should state which measurement method is being usedIC12Walker J. Naylor A.R. Ultrasound based diagnosis of ‘carotid stenosis >70%’: an audit of UK practice.Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2006; 31: 487-490Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, 14Oates C. Naylor A.R. Hartshorne T. Charles S.M. Humphries K. Aslam M. et al.Reporting carotid ultrasound investigations in the United Kingdom.Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2009; 37: 251-261Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (0) Google ScholarRecommendation 5Intra-arterial digital subtraction angiography should not be performed in patients being considered for revascularisation, unless there are significant discrepancies on non-invasive imagingIIIA18Wardlaw J.M. Chappell F.M. Stevenson M. De Nigris E. Thomas S. Gillard J. et al.Accurate, practical and cost-effective assessment of carotid stenosis in the UK.Health Technol Assess. 2006; 10: 1-182Crossref Scopus (99) Google Scholar Open table in a new tab Where possible, decisions regarding carotid interventions should involve a multidisciplinary team (MDT) including neurologists/stroke physicians, vascular surgeons, and interventional radiologists. Evidence suggests that MDTs increase the proportion of patients undergoing urgent CEA (4% vs. 22%, p < .0001),19Bazan H.A. Caton G. Talebinejad S. Hoffman R. Smith T.A. Vidal G. et al.A stroke/vascular neurology service increases the volume of urgent carotid endarterectomies performed in a tertiary referral center.Ann Vasc Surg. 2014; 28: 1172-1177Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar but it is important that urgent decisions can be made by at least two MDT members if meetings only occur weekly. Outcomes after CEA/CAS vary according to who performs the assessment. Rothwell observed that perioperative stroke rates after CEA were 7.7% when patients were assessed by a neurologist, vs. 2.3% where the operating surgeon adjudicated outcomes.20Rothwell P.M.R. Warlow C.P. Is self-audit reliable?.Lancet. 1995; 346: 1623Abstract PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar A German Carotid Stenting Registry also observed that neurologist assessment resulted in higher rates of transient (8.2% vs. 5.1%) and permanent (3.3% vs. 0.9%) neurological deficits following CAS, compared with when assessments were undertaken by the interventionist.21Theiss W. Hermanek P. Mathias K. Ahmadi R. Heuser L. Hoffmann F.J. et al.Pro-CAS: a prospective registry of carotid angioplasty and stenting.Stroke. 2004; 35: 2134-2139Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google ScholarTabled 1Recommendation 6ClassLevelReferencesMultidisciplinary assessment is recommended to achieve consensus regarding the indication and optimal treatment of patients by carotid endarterectomy or carotid stentingIC19Bazan H.A. Caton G. Talebinejad S. Hoffman R. Smith T.A. Vidal G. et al.A stroke/vascular neurology service increases the volume of urgent carotid endarterectomies performed in a tertiary referral center.Ann Vasc Surg. 2014; 28: 1172-1177Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google ScholarRecommendation 7Independent assessment after carotid interventions is recommended to audit procedural risksIC20Rothwell P.M.R. Warlow C.P. Is self-audit reliable?.Lancet. 1995; 346: 1623Abstract PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar, 21Theiss W. Hermanek P. Mathias K. Ahmadi R. Heuser L. Hoffmann F.J. et al.Pro-CAS: a prospective registry of carotid angioplasty and stenting.Stroke. 2004; 35: 2134-2139Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar Open table in a new tab In a pooled analysis of four population-based screening cohorts, smoking was associated with a significant increase in the prevalence of a >50% ICA stenosis (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.8–2.8) and of a >70% stenosis (OR 3.0, 95% CI 2.1–4.4).22de Weerd M. Greving J.P. Hedblad B. Lorenz M.W. Mathiesen E.B. O'Leary D.H. et al.Prediction of asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis in the general population identification of high-risk groups.Stroke. 2014; 45: 2366-2371Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar About 5% of males aged >65 years who are current smokers have a >50% ICA stenosis on DUS screening23Hogberg D. Kragsterman B. Bjorck M. Tjarnstrom J. Wanhainen A. Carotid artery atherosclerosis among 65-year-old Swedish men – a population-based screening study.Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2014; 48: 5-10Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar and smoking has been shown to increase plaque progression.24Herder M. Johnsen S.H. Arntzen K.A. Mathiesen E.B. Risk factors for progression of carotid intima-media thickness and total plaque area: a 13-year follow-up study: the Tromso Study.Stroke. 2012; 43: 1818-1823Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar In a meta-analysis of 32 studies, smoking was associated with a significant increase in late ischaemic stroke (relative risk increase [RRI] 1.9, 95% CI 1.7–2.2).25Shinton R. Beevers G. Meta-analysis of relation between cigarette smoking and stroke.BMJ. 1989; 298: 789-794Crossref PubMed Google Scholar In a meta-analysis, moderate or high levels of physical activity were associated with a 25% relative risk reduction (RRR) in ischaemic stroke,26Lee C.D. Folsom A.R. Blair S.N. Physical activity and stroke risk: a metaanalysis.Stroke. 2003; 34: 2475-2481Crossref PubMed Scopus (0) Google Scholar possibly via reductions in blood pressure (BP), body weight, and effects on other risk factors. Finally, in a meta-analysis of 25 studies involving 2 million people, obesity was associated with a significant increase in stroke prevalence (RRI 1.64, 95% CI 1.36–1.99).27Strazzullo P. D'Elia L. Cairella G. Garbagnati F. Cappuccio F.P. Scalfi L. Excess body weight and incidence of stroke: meta-analysis of prospective studies with 2 million partic