Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is a novel coronavirus that causes a highly contagious respiratory disease, SARS, with significant mortality. Although factors contributing to the highly pathogenic nature of SARS-CoV remain poorly understood, it has been reported that SARS-CoV infection does not induce type I interferons (IFNs) in cell culture. However, it is uncertain whether SARS-CoV evades host detection or has evolved mechanisms to counteract innate host defenses. We show here that infection of SARS-CoV triggers a weak IFN response in cultured human lung/bronchial epithelial cells without inducing the phosphorylation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), a latent cellular transcription factor that is pivotal for type I IFN synthesis. Furthermore, SARS-CoV infection blocked the induction of IFN antiviral activity and the up-regulation of protein expression of a subset of IFN-stimulated genes triggered by double-stranded RNA or an unrelated paramyxovirus. In searching for a SARS-CoV protein capable of counteracting innate immunity, we identified the papain-like protease (PLpro) domain as a potent IFN antagonist. The inhibition of the IFN response does not require the protease activity of PLpro. Rather, PLpro interacts with IRF-3 and inhibits the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of IRF-3, thereby disrupting the activation of type I IFN responses through either Toll-like receptor 3 or retinoic acid-inducible gene I/melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 pathways. Our data suggest that regulation of IRF-3-dependent innate antiviral defenses by PLpro may contribute to the establishment of SARS-CoV infection. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is a novel coronavirus that causes a highly contagious respiratory disease, SARS, with significant mortality. Although factors contributing to the highly pathogenic nature of SARS-CoV remain poorly understood, it has been reported that SARS-CoV infection does not induce type I interferons (IFNs) in cell culture. However, it is uncertain whether SARS-CoV evades host detection or has evolved mechanisms to counteract innate host defenses. We show here that infection of SARS-CoV triggers a weak IFN response in cultured human lung/bronchial epithelial cells without inducing the phosphorylation of IFN-regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3), a latent cellular transcription factor that is pivotal for type I IFN synthesis. Furthermore, SARS-CoV infection blocked the induction of IFN antiviral activity and the up-regulation of protein expression of a subset of IFN-stimulated genes triggered by double-stranded RNA or an unrelated paramyxovirus. In searching for a SARS-CoV protein capable of counteracting innate immunity, we identified the papain-like protease (PLpro) domain as a potent IFN antagonist. The inhibition of the IFN response does not require the protease activity of PLpro. Rather, PLpro interacts with IRF-3 and inhibits the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of IRF-3, thereby disrupting the activation of type I IFN responses through either Toll-like receptor 3 or retinoic acid-inducible gene I/melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 pathways. Our data suggest that regulation of IRF-3-dependent innate antiviral defenses by PLpro may contribute to the establishment of SARS-CoV infection. Upon virus infection, the host immediately launches an innate immune defense mechanism characterized by production of type I interferons (IFN 2The abbreviations used are: IFN, interferon; SARS-CoV, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus; PLpro, papain-like protease; PAMP, pathogen-associated molecular pattern; IRF-3, interferon regulatory factor-3; ISG, interferon-stimulated gene; dsRNA, double-stranded RNA; TLR, Toll-like receptor; TRIF, Toll-IL1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing IFN-β; RIG-I, retinoic acid-inducible gene I; MDA5, melanoma differentiation associated gene-5; MAVS, mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein; TBK1, Tank-binding kinase 1; DUB, deubiquitination; SeV, Sendai virus; CPE, cytopathic effect; DAPI, 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; DN, dominant negative; mAb, monoclonal antibody; pAb, polyclonal antibody; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; IL, interleukin; CIP, calf intestine alkaline phosphatase; HAU, hemagglutinin unit; RT, reverse transcription; q-RT, quantitative RT; WT, wild type; GFP, green fluorescent protein; tet, tetracycline; PRR, pattern recognition receptors; m.o.i., multiplicity of infection; OA, okadaic acid; co-IP, co-immunoprecipitation; nsp, nonstructural protein.-α and -β). IFN induces the expression of hundreds of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) that establish an antiviral state, thereby limiting viral replication and spread (1Sen G.C. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2001; 55: 255-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (791) Google Scholar, 2Goutagny N. Kim M. Fitzgerald K.A. Nat. Immunol. 2006; 7: 555-557Crossref PubMed Scopus (10) Google Scholar, 3Stetson D.B. Kim R. Immunity. 2006; 25: 373-381Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (889) Google Scholar, 4Garcia-Sastre A. Kim C.A. Science. 2006; 312: 879-882Crossref PubMed Scopus (709) Google Scholar, 5Kawai T. Kim S. Nat. Immunol. 2006; 7: 131-137Crossref PubMed Scopus (1434) Google Scholar). This innate antiviral response is initiated upon host detection of viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) via a number of cellular pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Viral nucleic acids comprising viral genomes or generated during viral replication present major PAMPs that can be recognized by two different classes of PRRs, i.e. the membrane-bound Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or the caspase recruitment domain-containing, cytoplasmic RNA helicases, retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I), or melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5) (6Yoneyama M. Kim M. Natsukawa T. Shinobu N. Imaizumi T. Miyagishi M. Taira K. Akira S. Fujita T. Nat. Immunol. 2004; 5: 730-737Crossref PubMed Scopus (3122) Google Scholar, 7Seth R.B. Kim L. Chen Z.J. Cell Res. 2006; 16: 141-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (350) Google Scholar, 8Meylan E. Kim J. Mol. Cell. 2006; 22: 561-569Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (321) Google Scholar). Among these, TLR3 and MDA5 detect viral double-stranded (ds) RNA in the endosomes and cytoplasm, respectively (9Sen G.C. Kim S.N. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2005; 16: 1-14Crossref PubMed Scopus (217) Google Scholar, 10Alexopoulou L. Kim A.C. Medzhitov R. Flavell R.A. Nature. 2001; 413: 732-738Crossref PubMed Scopus (4936) Google Scholar, 11Kato H. Kim O. Sato S. Yoneyama M. Yamamoto M. Matsui K. Uematsu S. Jung A. Kawai T. Ishii K.J. Yamaguchi O. Otsu K. Tsujimura T. Koh C.S. Reis e Sousa C. Matsuura Y. Fujita T. Akira S. Nature. 2006; 441: 101-105Crossref PubMed Scopus (2906) Google Scholar). Intracellular viral RNAs bearing 5′-triphosphates are recognized by RIG-I (12Hornung V. Kim J. Kim S. Brzozka K. Jung A. Kato H. Poeck H. Akira S. Conzelmann K.K. Schlee M. Endres S. Hartmann G. Science. 2006; 314: 994-997Crossref PubMed Scopus (1896) Google Scholar, 13Pichlmair A. Kim O. Tan C.P. Naslund T.I. Liljestrom P. Weber F. Reis e Sousa C. Science. 2006; 314: 997-1001Crossref PubMed Scopus (1771) Google Scholar). Upon engagement of their respective ligands, these PRRs recruit different adaptor molecules, relaying signals to downstream kinases that activate IFN regulatory factor-3 (IRF-3), nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), and ATF/C-Jun, transcription factors that coordinately regulate IFN-β transcription (1Sen G.C. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2001; 55: 255-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (791) Google Scholar, 7Seth R.B. Kim L. Chen Z.J. Cell Res. 2006; 16: 141-147Crossref PubMed Scopus (350) Google Scholar). IRF-3 is a constitutively expressed, latent transcription factor that plays a pivotal role in type I IFN responses. Its activation requires specific C-terminal phosphorylation mediated by two noncanonical IκB kinases, TBK1 or IKKε (14Sharma S. Kim B.R. Grandvaux N. Zhou G.P. Lin R. Hiscott J. Science. 2003; 300: 1148-1151Crossref PubMed Scopus (1366) Google Scholar, 15Fitzgerald K.A. Kim S.M. Faia K.L. Rowe D.C. Latz E. Golenbock D.T. Coyle A.J. Liao S.M. Maniatis T. Nat. Immunol. 2003; 4: 491-496Crossref PubMed Scopus (2085) Google Scholar). Phosphorylation of IRF-3 leads to its homodimerization, nuclear translocation, and association with CBP/p300, whereupon it collaborates with activated NF-κB to induce IFN-β synthesis (16Yoneyama M. Kim W. Fujita T. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2002; 22: 73-76Crossref PubMed Scopus (135) Google Scholar, 17Lin R. Kim C. Pitha P.M. Hiscott J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 2986-2996Crossref PubMed Scopus (756) Google Scholar). In addition, although it is not utilized by most parenchymal cell types, TLR7 constitutes the major pathway in plasmacytoid dendritic cells and triggers potent IFN-α production in circulation upon engagement of single-stranded viral RNAs (18Diebold S.S. Kim T. Hemmi H. Akira S. Reis e Sousa C. Science. 2004; 303: 1529-1531Crossref PubMed Scopus (2739) Google Scholar, 19Heil F. Kim H. Hochrein H. Ampenberger F. Kirschning C. Akira S. Lipford G. Wagner H. Bauer S. Science. 2004; 303: 1526-1529Crossref PubMed Scopus (3062) Google Scholar). During co-evolution with their hosts, many viruses have acquired mechanisms to circumvent cellular IFN responses by encoding proteins that disrupt the IFN signaling pathways. It is thought that the early virus-host interactions may significantly impact the course and/or outcome of the infection (1Sen G.C. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2001; 55: 255-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (791) Google Scholar, 5Kawai T. Kim S. Nat. Immunol. 2006; 7: 131-137Crossref PubMed Scopus (1434) Google Scholar). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is a novel coronavirus that causes a highly contagious respiratory disease, SARS, with a significant mortality rate of about 10% (20Peiris J.S. Kim Y. Yuen K.Y. Nat. Med. 2004; 10: S88-S97Crossref PubMed Scopus (777) Google Scholar). The first 3/4 of the positive-sense, single-stranded, 29.7-kb genome of SARS-CoV is translated into two large replicase polyproteins (22Yount B. Kim R.S. Sims A.C. Deming D. Frieman M.B. Sparks J. Denison M.R. Davis N. Baric R.S. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 14909-14922Crossref PubMed Scopus (204) Google Scholar, 23Ziebuhr J. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 2006; 581: 3-11Crossref PubMed Scopus (20) Google Scholar, 24Ziebuhr J. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2005; 287: 57-94PubMed Google Scholar) called as pp1a and pp1ab (25Marra M.A. Kim S.J. Astell C.R. Holt R.A. Brooks-Wilson A. Butterfield Y.S. Khattra J. Asano J.K. Barber S.A. Chan S.Y. Cloutier A. Coughlin S.M. Freeman D. Girn N. Griffith O.L. Leach S.R. Mayo M. McDonald H. Montgomery S.B. Pandoh P.K. Petrescu A.S. Robertson A.G. Schein J.E. Siddiqui A. Smailus D.E. Stott J.M. Yang G.S. Plummer F. Andonov A. Artsob H. Bastien N. Bernard K. Booth T.F. Bowness D. Drebot M. Fernando L. Flick R. Garbutt M. Gray M. Grolla A. Jones S. Feldmann H. Meyers A. Kabani A. Li Y. Normand S. Stroher U. Tipples G.A. Tyler S. Vogrig R. Ward D. Watson B. Brunham R.C. Krajden M. Petric M. Skowronski D.M. Upton C. Roper R.L. Science. 2003; 300: 1399-1404Crossref PubMed Scopus (1768) Google Scholar, 26Rota P.A. Kim M.S. Monroe S.S. Nix W.A. Campagnoli R. Icenogle J.P. Penaranda S. Bankamp B. Maher K. Chen M.H. Tong S. Tamin A. Lowe L. Frace M. DeRisi J.L. Chen Q. Wang D. Erdman D.D. Peret T.C. Burns C. Ksiazek T.G. Rollin P.E. Sanchez A. Liffick S. Holloway B. Limor J. McCaustland K. Olsen-Rasmussen M. Fouchier R. Gunther S. Osterhaus A.D. Drosten C. Pallansch M.A. Anderson L.J. Bellini W.J. Science. 2003; 300: 1394-1399Crossref PubMed Scopus (2115) Google Scholar). Papain-like protease (PLpro) and 3C-like protease domains present within these polyproteins direct their processing into 16 nonstructural proteins (nsp1-16) that assemble to generate a multifunctional, membrane-associated replicase complex. Unlike other coronaviruses that encode two different PLpros, SARS-CoV encodes only one. Residing within the 213-kDa, membrane-associated replicase product nsp3, the SARS-CoV PLpro is responsible for cleaving junctions spanning nsp1 to nsp4 (27Harcourt B.H. Kim D. Kanjanahaluethai A. Bechill J. Severson K.M. Smith C.M. Rota P.A. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2004; 78: 13600-13612Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar). Surprisingly, the crystal structure of SARS-CoV PLpro resembles that of known cellular deubiquitinating (DUB) enzymes USP14 and HAUSP (28Ratia K. Kim K.S. Santarsiero B.D. Barretto N. Baker S.C. Stevens R.C. Mesecar A.D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006; 103: 5717-5722Crossref PubMed Scopus (304) Google Scholar). SARS-CoV PLpro has also been demonstrated to have both DUB and deISGylation activities in vitro, consistent with the fact that it shares the consensus recognition motif LXGG with cellular DUBs (29Barretto N. Kim D. Ratia K. Chen Z. Mesecar A.D. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 15189-15198Crossref PubMed Scopus (399) Google Scholar, 30Lindner H.A. Kim N. Lytvyn V. Lachance P. Sulea T. Menard R. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 15199-15208Crossref PubMed Scopus (289) Google Scholar). Based on these findings, it has been proposed that SARS-CoV PLpro may have important but still uncharacterized functions in regulating cellular processes, in addition to its role as a viral protease (29Barretto N. Kim D. Ratia K. Chen Z. Mesecar A.D. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 15189-15198Crossref PubMed Scopus (399) Google Scholar, 30Lindner H.A. Kim N. Lytvyn V. Lachance P. Sulea T. Menard R. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 15199-15208Crossref PubMed Scopus (289) Google Scholar). Although factors contributing to the highly pathogenic nature of SARS-CoV remain poorly understood, infection of HEK293 cells does not induce production of type I IFNs (21Spiegel M. Kim A. Martinez-Sobrido L. Cros J. Garcia-Sastre A. Haller O. Weber F. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 2079-2086Crossref PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar). However, pretreatment of permissive cells with IFN prevents SARS-CoV replication (31Zheng L. Kim U. Reymond J.L. Nucleic Acids Res. 2004; 32: e115Crossref PubMed Scopus (840) Google Scholar). These are intriguing observations, as the ability to disrupt IFN responses seems to correlate with in vivo virulence in some viral infections, e.g. equine, swine, and H5N1 avian influenza viruses which express NS1, a well characterized IFN antagonist (32Solorzano A. Kim R.J. Lager K.M. Janke B.H. Garcia-Sastre A. Richt J.A. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 7535-7543Crossref PubMed Scopus (208) Google Scholar, 33Quinlivan M. Kim D. Garcia-Sastre A. Cullinane A. Chambers T. Palese P. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 8431-8439Crossref PubMed Scopus (201) Google Scholar, 34Li Z. Kim Y. Jiao P. Wang A. Zhao F. Tian G. Wang X. Yu K. Bu Z. Chen H. J. Virol. 2006; 80: 11115-11123Crossref PubMed Scopus (254) Google Scholar). The absence of IRF-3 activation and IFN-β mRNA induction in SARS-CoV-infected HEK293 cells has led to the proposal that SARS-CoV is able to disrupt the activation of IRF-3-mediated defenses (21Spiegel M. Kim A. Martinez-Sobrido L. Cros J. Garcia-Sastre A. Haller O. Weber F. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 2079-2086Crossref PubMed Scopus (242) Google Scholar). However, contradictory results have been published regarding whether SARS-CoV evades host detection or, alternatively, has developed strategies to actively block host innate defense mechanisms. Three SARS-CoV proteins, ORF3b, ORF6, and nucleocapsid (N), were recently identified as IFN antagonists, based on their ability to inhibit IRF-3 activation (35Kopecky-Bromberg S.A. Kim L. Frieman M. Baric R.A. Palese P. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 548-557Crossref PubMed Scopus (509) Google Scholar). SARS-CoV nsp1 was also shown to inhibit host IFN responses by inducing the degradation of host mRNAs (36Kamitani W. Kim K. Huang C. Lokugamage K. Ikegami T. Ito N. Kubo H. Makino S. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2006; 103: 12885-12890Crossref PubMed Scopus (304) Google Scholar). However, others have reported that infection of mouse hepatitis virus, a closely related type 2 coronavirus, or SARS-CoV does not activate IFN-β synthesis in murine fibroblasts nor inhibit its induction by poly(I-C) or Sendai virus (SeV) (37Zhou H. Kim S. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 568-574Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 38Versteeg G.A. Kim P.J. van den Worm S.H. Spaan W.J. Virology. 2007; 361: 18-26Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar). It was proposed from these studies that group 2 coronaviruses are "invisible" to host cells and thus avoid innate immunity by somehow avoiding host recognition (37Zhou H. Kim S. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 568-574Crossref PubMed Scopus (97) Google Scholar, 38Versteeg G.A. Kim P.J. van den Worm S.H. Spaan W.J. Virology. 2007; 361: 18-26Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar). Here we show that SARS-CoV triggers a weak, yet demonstrable IFN response in cultured human lung/bronchial epithelial cells and fibroblasts derived from fetal rhesus monkey kidney, both of which are naturally permissive to SARS-CoV. Furthermore, SARS-CoV infection blocks the induction of IFN antiviral activity and the up-regulation of a subset of ISG proteins in response to dsRNA or SeV. We also identify the PLpro of SARS-CoV as a potent IFN antagonist. PLpro interacts with IRF-3 and inhibits its phosphorylation and nuclear translocation, thereby disrupting multiple signaling pathways leading to IFN induction. Finally, we demonstrate a role of IRF-3 signaling in control of SARS-CoV infection by showing that disruption of IRF-3 function significantly up-regulates SARS-CoV replication. Our data suggest that SARS-CoV is detected by the innate immune surveillance mechanism of host cells, but that active regulation of IRF-3-mediated host defenses limits the IFN responses and likely contributes to establishment of SARS-CoV infection. Cells—Human bronchial epithelial cells Calu-3, African green monkey kidney cells MA104 and Vero, human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293, 293T, 293-TLR3 (a gift from Kate Fitzgerald), HeLa, and human hepatoma cells Huh7 were maintained by conventional techniques. HeLa Tet-Off cell lines (Clontech) were cultured following the manufacturer's instructions. Plasmids—To obtain high level expression of SARS-CoV PLpro in eukaryotic cells, the codon usage of the SARS-CoV PLpro core domain (amino acids 1541-1855 of pp1a of SARS-CoV Urbani strain, GenBank™ accession number AY278741) was optimized based on the human codon usage frequency, and the potential splicing sites and polyadenylation signal sequences were removed from the coding regions of PLpro. The optimized PLpro was named SARS PLpro Sol (Supplemental Material) and cloned into pcDNA3.1-V5/HisB (Invitrogen) between the BamHI and EcoRI sites with in-frame fusion with C-terminal V5 and His6 tags, to result in the expression plasmid pCDNA3.1-SARS-PLpro-Sol. To generate pCDNA3.1-SARS-PLpro-TM (amino acids 1841-2425), the coding sequence for the TM domains downstream of PLpro in SARS-CoV nsp3 was amplified from the plasmid pPLpro-HD (27Harcourt B.H. Kim D. Kanjanahaluethai A. Bechill J. Severson K.M. Smith C.M. Rota P.A. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2004; 78: 13600-13612Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar) by PCR with primers P1, 5′-TTAGAATTCACCTGTGTCGTAACTC-3′, and P2, 5′-TAACTCGAGGTGAGTCTTGCAGAAGC-3′, and the product was digested with EcoRI/XhoI and cloned downstream of PLpro Sol with C-terminal in-frame fusion of V5-His6 tags. The catalytically inactive mutants of PLpro Sol and PLpro-TM (C1651A and D1826A) were generated by QuikChange site-directed mutagenesis (Stratagene) using specific primers containing the desired mutations (Supplemental Material). The fidelity of the cDNA inserts in all constructs was validated by DNA sequencing. To construct a tetracycline (tet)-regulated expression plasmid for SARS-CoV PLpro-TM, cDNA fragment encoding PLpro-TM along with its downstream V5-His6 tags in pCDNA3.1-SARS-PLpro-TM were excised by restriction digestion with HindIII and PmeI, and ligated into pTRE2Bla (39Chen Z. Kim Y. Rijnbrand R. Yi J. Wang T. Warter L. Lanford R.E. Weinman S.A. Lemon S.M. Martin A. Li K. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 964-976Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar) that was digested with HindIII and EcoRV, to result in the plasmid pTRE2Bla-SARS-PLpro-TM. To construct a tet-regulated expression plasmid for a dominant negative (DN) form of IRF-3, cDNA encoding the amino acids 134-427 of IRF-3 was amplified from Huh7 cDNA by PCR and cloned into pTRE2Bla (39Chen Z. Kim Y. Rijnbrand R. Yi J. Wang T. Warter L. Lanford R.E. Weinman S.A. Lemon S.M. Martin A. Li K. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 964-976Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar) between HindIII and XbaI sites, to generate pTRE2Bla-IRF3DN133. The cDNA expression plasmids for TRIF, RIG-I, MAVS, and bovine viral diarrhea virus Npro have been described (39Chen Z. Kim Y. Rijnbrand R. Yi J. Wang T. Warter L. Lanford R.E. Weinman S.A. Lemon S.M. Martin A. Li K. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 964-976Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 40Li K. Kim Z. Kato N. Gale M. Jr. Lemon S. M. J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 16739-16747Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar, 41Li K. Kim E. Ferreon J.C. Nakamura M. Ferreon A.C. Ikeda M. Ray S.C. Gale M. Jr. Lemon S. M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005; 102: 2992-2997Crossref PubMed Scopus (925) Google Scholar, 43Chen Z. Kim R. Jangra R.K. Devaraj S.G. Qu L. Ma Y. Lemon S.M. Li K. Virology. 2007; 366: 277-292Crossref PubMed Scopus (98) Google Scholar). The following plasmids were kind gifts from the respectively indicated contributors: pCDNA3-A20-myc (from Nancy Raab-Traub) (42Fries K.L. Kim W.E. Raab-Traub N. Virology. 1999; 264: 159-166Crossref PubMed Scopus (47) Google Scholar); p55C1Bluc, pEFBos N-RIG, and pEFBos N-MDA5 (from Takashi Fujita) (6Yoneyama M. Kim M. Natsukawa T. Shinobu N. Imaizumi T. Miyagishi M. Taira K. Akira S. Fujita T. Nat. Immunol. 2004; 5: 730-737Crossref PubMed Scopus (3122) Google Scholar); pcDNA3-FLAG TBK1 and pcDNA3-FLAG IKKε (from Kate Fitzgerald) (15Fitzgerald K.A. Kim S.M. Faia K.L. Rowe D.C. Latz E. Golenbock D.T. Coyle A.J. Liao S.M. Maniatis T. Nat. Immunol. 2003; 4: 491-496Crossref PubMed Scopus (2085) Google Scholar); pIFN-β-luc. IRF3-5D, GFP-IRF3, and GFP-IRF3 5D (from Rongtuan Lin) (17Lin R. Kim C. Pitha P.M. Hiscott J. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1998; 18: 2986-2996Crossref PubMed Scopus (756) Google Scholar); PRDII-Luc (from Michael Gale), and (PRDIII-I)4-Luc (from Christina Ehrhardt) (44Ehrhardt C. Kim C. Wurzer W.J. Wolff T. von Eichel-Streiber C. Pleschka S. Planz O. Ludwig S. FEBS Lett. 2004; 567: 230-238Crossref PubMed Scopus (107) Google Scholar). Generation of Tet-regulated Cell Lines—The detailed procedures for establishment of HeLa- and Huh7-inducible cells were similar to those described previously (39Chen Z. Kim Y. Rijnbrand R. Yi J. Wang T. Warter L. Lanford R.E. Weinman S.A. Lemon S.M. Martin A. Li K. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 964-976Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 45Li K. Kim T. Lemon S.M. Beard M.R. Hepatology. 2002; 35: 1237-1246Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar). Briefly, to generate HeLa PLpro-inducible cells, HeLa Tet-Off cells were transfected with pTRE2Bla-SARS-PLpro-TM using FuGENE 6 (Roche Applied Science) and double-selected in complete medium supplemented with 100 μg/ml G418, 1 μg/ml blasticidin, and 2 μg/ml Tet. Approximately 3 weeks later, individual cell colonies were selected, expanded, and examined for SARS-CoV PLpro-TM expression by indirect immunofluorescence staining using a mouse monoclonal antibody (mAb) against the V5 epitope (Invitrogen) (1:500) that is present at the C terminus of PLpro-TM, after being cultured in the absence of tet for 4 days. Two independent cell clones, designated HeLa PLpro-4 and -10, respectively, allowed tight regulation of PLpro-TM expression under tet control and were selected for further characterization. Inducible expression of PLpro-TM in these cells was also confirmed by immunoblot analysis using both the V5-tag mAb and a rabbit antiserum against SARS-CoV nsp3 (27Harcourt B.H. Kim D. Kanjanahaluethai A. Bechill J. Severson K.M. Smith C.M. Rota P.A. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2004; 78: 13600-13612Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar). To generate Huh7 cells with conditional expression of DN-IRF-3, cells were cotransfected with pTet-Off (Clontech) and pTRE2Bla-IRF3DN133 at a ratio of 1:10, and double-selected in complete medium supplemented with 400 μg/ml G418, 2 μg/ml blasticidin, and 2 μg/ml tet. Expansion and screening of positive clones were conducted by procedures similar to those used for HeLa PLpro-inducible cells, except that a rabbit polyclonal IRF-3 antiserum (kindly provided by Michael David) was used for immunostaining and immunoblot analysis. Three individual cell clones, designated Huh7 DN-6, -12, and -18, respectively, allowed tightly regulated expression of DN-IRF3 at various levels. However, under fully induced conditions (-tet), only DN-18 cells expressed DN-IRF-3 at a level higher than that of the endogenous IRF-3, and thus allowed a demonstrable DN effect on viral induction of IRF-3 target genes (Fig. 9A and data not shown). Therefore, we selected DN-18 cells for further analysis. SeV Infection and Poly(I-C) Treatment—Where indicated, cells were infected with 100 hemagglutinin units (HAU)/ml of SeV (Cantell strain, Charles River Laboratories) for 8-16 h prior to cell lysis for luciferase/β-galactosidase reporter assays and/or immunoprecipitation/immunoblot analysis as described previously (39Chen Z. Kim Y. Rijnbrand R. Yi J. Wang T. Warter L. Lanford R.E. Weinman S.A. Lemon S.M. Martin A. Li K. J. Virol. 2007; 81: 964-976Crossref PubMed Scopus (112) Google Scholar, 40Li K. Kim Z. Kato N. Gale M. Jr. Lemon S. M. J. Biol. Chem. 2005; 280: 16739-16747Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (295) Google Scholar, 41Li K. Kim E. Ferreon J.C. Nakamura M. Ferreon A.C. Ikeda M. Ray S.C. Gale M. Jr. Lemon S. M. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005; 102: 2992-2997Crossref PubMed Scopus (925) Google Scholar, 46Foy E. Kim K. Wang C. Sumpter R. Jr. Ikeda M. Lemon Gale S.M. M. Jr. Science. 2003; 300: 1145-1148Crossref PubMed Scopus (707) Google Scholar). For poly(I-C) treatment, poly(I-C) (Sigma) was added directly to the culture medium at 50 μg/ml (M-pIC) or complexed with Lipofectamine 2000 (at 1:1 ratio) (T-pIC) and loaded onto the cells for the indicated time period. SARS-CoV Infection and Titration—Where indicated, cells were infected with the Urbani strain of SARS-CoV (kindly provided by T. G. Ksiazek, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA) at the indicated m.o.i. as described previously (47Tseng C.T. Kim J. Perrone L. Worthy M. Popov V. Peters C.J. J. Virol. 2005; 79: 9470-9479Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar). The cell-free SARS-CoV stock with a titer of 1 × 107 TCID50/ml (50% tissue culture infectious dose) was generated following two passages of the original stock in Vero E6 cells and stored in aliquots at -80 °C. All experiments involving infectious viruses were conducted in an approved biosafety level 3 laboratory at the University of Texas Medical Branch. The infectious viral titers in the cell-free supernatants collected at different time points postinfection were determined by a standard TCID50 assay on permissive Vero E6 cell monolayers in 96-well plates with a series of 10-fold-diluted samples. The titer was expressed as TCID50 per ml of individual samples. IFN Bioactivity Assay—IFN bioactivity in γ-irradiated cell culture supernatants was determined by a standard microtiter plaque reduction assay using vesicular stomatitis virus on Vero cells, as described previously (48Langford M.P. Kim D.A. Stanton G.J. Baron S. Methods Enzymol. 1981; 78: 339-346Crossref PubMed Scopus (113) Google Scholar). Transfection and Reporter Gene Assay—Cells grown in 24-well plates (5 × 104/well) were transfected in triplicate with the indicated reporter plasmid (100 ng), pCMVβgal (100 ng), and the indicated amount of an expression vector (50-400 ng and supplied with an empty vector to keep the total amount of DNA transfected constant) using FuGENE 6 transfection reagent (Roche Applied Science), as per the manufacturer's instructions. Twenty four hours later, transfected cells were mock-treated, treated with poly(I-C) for 6 h, or infected with SeV for 16 h before cell lysis and assay for both firefly luciferase and β-galactosidase activities. Data were expressed as mean relative luciferase activity (luciferase activity divided by β-galactosidase activity) with standard deviation from a representative experiment carried out in triplicate. A minimum of three independent experiments were performed to confirm the results of each experiment. The fold change of promoter activity was calculated by dividing the relative luciferase activity of stimulated cells by that of mock-treated cells. Indirect Immunofluorescence Staining—Cells grown in chamber slides (LabTek) following the indicated treatments were washed with PBS and fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde in PBS for 30 min at room temperature. Cells were then permeabilized with 0.2% Triton X-100 in PBS for 15 min and blocked in 3% bovine serum albumin at room temperature for 30 min. After a PBS rinse, the slides were incubated with a rabbit polyclonal antiserum against human IRF3 (1:500, kindly provided by Michael David) (49Navarro L. Kim M. J. Biol. Chem. 1999; 274: 35535-35538Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (103) Google Scholar), or with a V5 tag mAb (1:500, Invitrogen), or with a rabbit polyclonal antiserum (R3) against SARS-CoV nsp3 (27Harcourt B.H. Kim D. Kanjanahaluethai A. Bechill J. Severson K.M. Smith C.M. Rota P.A. Baker S.C. J. Virol. 2004; 78: 13600-13612Crossref PubMed Scopus (343) Google Scholar) (1:1000) in 3% BSA for 1 h at room temperature. Following three washings in PBS, slides were incubated with fluorescein isothiocyanate or Texas Red-conjugat