We report on ten individuals with a fatal infantile encephalopathy and/or pulmonary hypertension, leading to death before the age of 15 months. Hyperglycinemia and lactic acidosis were common findings. Glycine cleavage system and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) activities were low. Homozygosity mapping revealed a perfectly overlapping homozygous region of 1.24 Mb corresponding to chromosome 2 and led to the identification of a homozygous missense mutation (c.622G>T) in NFU1, which encodes a conserved protein suggested to participate in Fe-S cluster biogenesis. Nine individuals were homozygous for this mutation, whereas one was compound heterozygous for this and a splice-site (c.545+5G>A) mutation. The biochemical phenotype suggested an impaired activity of the Fe-S enzyme lipoic acid synthase (LAS). Direct measurement of protein-bound lipoic acid in individual tissues indeed showed marked decreases. Upon depletion of NFU1 by RNA interference in human cell culture, LAS and, in turn, PDHC activities were largely diminished. In addition, the amount of succinate dehydrogenase, but no other Fe-S proteins, was decreased. In contrast, depletion of the general Fe-S scaffold protein ISCU severely affected assembly of all tested Fe-S proteins, suggesting that NFU1 performs a specific function in mitochondrial Fe-S cluster maturation. Similar biochemical effects were observed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae upon deletion of NFU1, resulting in lower lipoylation and SDH activity. Importantly, yeast Nfu1 protein carrying the individuals' missense mutation was functionally impaired. We conclude that NFU1 functions as a late-acting maturation factor for a subset of mitochondrial Fe-S proteins. We report on ten individuals with a fatal infantile encephalopathy and/or pulmonary hypertension, leading to death before the age of 15 months. Hyperglycinemia and lactic acidosis were common findings. Glycine cleavage system and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) activities were low. Homozygosity mapping revealed a perfectly overlapping homozygous region of 1.24 Mb corresponding to chromosome 2 and led to the identification of a homozygous missense mutation (c.622G>T) in NFU1, which encodes a conserved protein suggested to participate in Fe-S cluster biogenesis. Nine individuals were homozygous for this mutation, whereas one was compound heterozygous for this and a splice-site (c.545+5G>A) mutation. The biochemical phenotype suggested an impaired activity of the Fe-S enzyme lipoic acid synthase (LAS). Direct measurement of protein-bound lipoic acid in individual tissues indeed showed marked decreases. Upon depletion of NFU1 by RNA interference in human cell culture, LAS and, in turn, PDHC activities were largely diminished. In addition, the amount of succinate dehydrogenase, but no other Fe-S proteins, was decreased. In contrast, depletion of the general Fe-S scaffold protein ISCU severely affected assembly of all tested Fe-S proteins, suggesting that NFU1 performs a specific function in mitochondrial Fe-S cluster maturation. Similar biochemical effects were observed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae upon deletion of NFU1, resulting in lower lipoylation and SDH activity. Importantly, yeast Nfu1 protein carrying the individuals' missense mutation was functionally impaired. We conclude that NFU1 functions as a late-acting maturation factor for a subset of mitochondrial Fe-S proteins. Iron-sulfur cluster (ISC) biogenesis is a complex process involving at least 25 components in mitochondria and cytosol.1Lill R. Function and biogenesis of iron-sulphur proteins.Nature. 2009; 460: 831-838Crossref PubMed Scopus (838) Google Scholar, 2Ye H. Rouault T.A. Human iron-sulfur cluster assembly, cellular iron homeostasis, and disease.Biochemistry. 2010; 49: 4945-4956Crossref PubMed Scopus (202) Google Scholar, 3Sheftel A. Stehling O. Lill R. Iron-sulfur proteins in health and disease.Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2010; 21: 302-314Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (162) Google Scholar The precise function of the mitochondrial ISC assembly protein NFU1 is unknown, the more so because its depletion in yeast is associated with comparatively weak defects of mitochondrial Fe-S proteins.4Schilke B. Voisine C. Beinert H. Craig E. Evidence for a conserved system for iron metabolism in the mitochondria of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1999; 96: 10206-10211Crossref PubMed Scopus (268) Google Scholar, 5Tong W.H. Jameson G.N. Huynh B.H. Rouault T.A. Subcellular compartmentalization of human Nfu, an iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein, and its ability to assemble a [4Fe-4S] cluster.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 9762-9767Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar Here, we identified ten individuals with mutations in NFU1 (MIM 608100) and a fatal mitochondrial disease displaying the biochemical features associated with a defect in lipoic acid synthesis.6Hiltunen J.K. Autio K.J. Schonauer M.S. Kursu V.A. Dieckmann C.L. Kastaniotis A.J. Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis and respiration.Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2010; 1797: 1195-1202Crossref PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar This co-factor is synthesized by the Fe-S enzyme lipoic acid synthase (LAS). A LAS defect caused by impaired Fe-S cluster biogenesis might explain the biochemical phenotype of low lipoic acid content. Ten individuals from nine unrelated Spanish families were born at term and developed normally throughout the early neonatal period. First symptoms started at age 1–9 months, and all the individuals died on or before the age of 15 months. The most prominent clinical features were failure to thrive, pulmonary hypertension, and neurological regression (Table 1). However, a detailed clinical presentation and evolution allowed us to classify them into three groups. The first group included P1 to P3, presenting with failure to thrive and neurological involvement (hypotonia and irritability) without pulmonary hypertension. Brain imaging of P1 showed bilateral white-matter lesions. Spongiform degeneration, astrogliosis, and white-matter necrosis with preservation of U fibers were confirmed at autopsy in all three individuals. P1 and P2 were siblings and had an unaffected sister, whereas P3 had a brother who died at the age of 2 months of untreatable metabolic acidosis. However, biological material was not available for study. The second group consisted on individuals P4 and P5, who were diagnosed of pulmonary hypertension, and after a febrile illness both exhibited neurological regression. P4 was born to first-degree consanguineous parents and had an older sibling with a similar clinical phenotype. Autopsy was not performed in these individuals. The third group comprised P6–P10; pulmonary hypertension was the main clinical feature in this group and was accompanied by failure to thrive in three individuals. Among these five individuals, only P7 had mild psychomotor retardation and recurrent hypoglycemia. Despite the absence of specific neurological symptoms in this group, areas of white-matter demyelination, vacuolization, and astrogliosis in the central nervous system were found in all the cases in which autopsy was performed. Pulmonary samples of individuals P7, P8, and P9 showed obstructive vasculopathy with involvement of proximal and acinar arteries.Table 1Relevant clinical and biochemical data of individuals carrying mutations in NFU1P1P2P3P4P5P6P7P 8P9P10Clinical DataGenderfemalefemalefemalemalefemalemalefemalefemalefemalemaleFamily antecedentsSibling of patient 2Sibling of patient 1Affected siblingConsanguineous parents.Affected siblingNONONONONONOAge at presentation/age at death9 m/13m4 m/10m5 m/12m5 m/15m7 m/8m2 m/6m4 m/15m6m/7m4m/5m1m 25d/2 mClinical presentationfailure to thrive, psychomotor retardation, neurological regressionfailure to thrive, psychomotor retardation, neurological regressionfailure to thrive, neurological regressionneurological regression, pulmonary hypertensionneurological regression, pulmonary hypertensionfailure to thrive, pulmonary hypertensionfailure to thrive, Mild psychomotor retardation, pulmonary hypertensionpulmonary hypertensionpulmonary hypertensionfailure to thrive, pulmonary hypertension.DysmorphiaBrain imagingLeukodystrophy and semioval necrosisNDNDNDsemioval center and cerebellum lesionsNDcerebral atrophyNDNDnormal cranial USBiochemical Data: LactatePlasma (0.5-2uM)54.5104.55.5121.83.32.12.0CSF (0.8-2.8 uM)3.43.77NDNDNDNDNDND4.7Biochemical Data: GlycinePlasma (CV:81-436 uM)641391706276874656150019201137758Urine (CV:110-356 mmol/mol creatine)253455685769635422206NDNDND2282CSF (CV:3.7-8 uM)214955NDND2034ND22.730CSF/plasma (<0.04)0.030.120.08NDND0.030.02ND0.020.06Biochemical Data: Alpha-amino-adipateUrine (CV:<25 mmol/mol creatine)7854354105414129HighHighHigh100Biochemical Data: PDHCActivity in fibroblastsaPDHC (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) activity is expressed as nmol/min.mg prot; control mean value ± standard deviation: 0.70 ± 0.26.0.0950.6bPDHC activity measured in muscle biopsy (control mean value ± standard deviation: 1.61 ± 0.74).0.130.08NDND0.030.030.002NDBiochemical Data: GCSActivity in liver necropsycGCS (glycine cleavage system) activity is expressed as the percentage of the lowest control value.NDNDNDND11%8%NDUndetectable7%5%ND, not determined.a PDHC (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex) activity is expressed as nmol/min.mg prot; control mean value ± standard deviation: 0.70 ± 0.26.b PDHC activity measured in muscle biopsy (control mean value ± standard deviation: 1.61 ± 0.74).c GCS (glycine cleavage system) activity is expressed as the percentage of the lowest control value. Open table in a new tab ND, not determined. The biochemical phenotype included metabolic acidosis with variable lactic acidemia and hyperglycinemia (Table 1). All individuals had high urinary excretion of 2-ketoglutaric, 2-ketoadipic, 2-hydroxyadipic, and glutaric acids, among others (Figure 1A and Table S1, available online); the excretion of glutaric acid was probably due to spontaneous decarboxylation of 2-ketoadipic acid.7Duran M. Beemer F.A. Wadman S.K. Wendel U. Janssen B. A patient with alpha-ketoadipic and alpha-aminoadipic aciduria.J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 1984; 7: 61Crossref PubMed Scopus (19) Google Scholar In cases where tissues were available, activity of the glycine cleavage system (GCS [MIM 238300]) in liver was low or undetectable. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) activity in fibroblasts was also low (Table 1), whereas the partial PDHC reactions catalyzed by pyruvate decarboxylase (PDH-E1 [MIM 312170]) and dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (PDH-E3 [MIM 238331]) subunits were normal (not shown). Dihydrolipoamide acetyl transferase (PDH-E2 [MIM 608770]) activity was not measured, but analysis of its cDNA sequence did not reveal any mutation (not shown). Finally, the rates of 14C-substrate oxidation (pyruvate, leucine, and glutamate) by fibroblasts were low (Table 2).Table 2Substrate Oxidation and Respiratory-Chain Activities in Individuals Carrying Mutations in NFU1P1P2P3P4P7P8P9Substrate Oxidation in Fibroblasts (Expressed as a Percentage of the Parallel Control)1-14C-Pyruvate-6%5%2%6%5%8%2-14C-Pyruvate-undetectable3%6%-undetectable0.4%1-14C-Glutamate-21%2%65%-25%17%1-14C-Leucine-43%73%40%10%--Respiratory-Chain Activities in Frozen MuscleComplex I + complex III (CV:60–210 mU/U citrate synthase)88129230----Complex II + complex III (CV:23–149 mU/U citrate synthase)223437----Complex IV (CV:600–1300 mU/U citrate synthase)770908920----Citrate synthase (CV:56–176 mU/U citrate synthase)136112130----(-) not determined. Open table in a new tab (-) not determined. The antecedents in these families suggested an autosomal-recessive inheritance, and four families were of Basque origin; historical, linguistic, and numerous genetic studies support the homogeneity of the Basque people, who are clearly differentiated from other European populations.8Rodríguez-Ezpeleta N. Alvarez-Busto J. Imaz L. Regueiro M. Azcárate M.N. Bilbao R. Iriondo M. Gil A. Estonba A. Aransay A.M. High-density SNP genotyping detects homogeneity of Spanish and French Basques, and confirms their genomic distinctiveness from other European populations.Hum. Genet. 2010; 128: 113-117Crossref PubMed Scopus (36) Google Scholar Therefore, we considered it appropriate to search for the genetic cause of the disease by linkage analysis in two of the individuals of Basque origin. Homozygosity mapping with DNA of P2 and P3 revealed a perfectly overlapping homozygous region of 1.24 Mb in both individuals (Figure S1); this region included 97 homozygous SNP markers, from rs4384823–rs2278791. This region harbors 22 open reading frames. On the basis of the individuals' biochemical phenotype, we focused on two genes encoding mitochondrial proteins: FAM136A (RefSeq NM_032822) and NFU1 (RefSeq NM_001002755.1). No alterations for full-length cDNA of FAM136A were found. In contrast, sequence analysis of NFU1 identified a homozygous mutation in exon 7 (c.622G>T) for individuals 1–9. This mutation changed a highly conserved glycine to a cysteine at position 208 of the protein (p.Gly208Cys) (Figure 1B). Glycine 208 is close to the Fe-S cluster binding motif,5Tong W.H. Jameson G.N. Huynh B.H. Rouault T.A. Subcellular compartmentalization of human Nfu, an iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein, and its ability to assemble a [4Fe-4S] cluster.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 9762-9767Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar and it is conserved among all species (Figure 1C). All available parents—including the parents of P6, whose DNA was not available—and a sister of P1 and P2 were heterozygous for the mutation. No carriers were identified in a control group of 220 Spanish alleles (100 of them of Basque origin). Carrier rate was studied by restriction-fragment-length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, which made use of the fact that the c.622G>T mutation removes a BstNI restriction site in exon 7 (Figure 1B). Individual 10 (Table 1, Table 2) was compound heterozygous for the common mutation and a new substitution in the donor splice site of exon 6 (c.545+5G>A). Analysis of parents' DNA confirmed that the mutations were in separate alleles (Figure 2A ). RT-PCR showed normal expression of mRNA (Figure 2B, left panel). Although P10 is compound heterozygous, RFLP analysis showed only expression for the allele carrying the c.622G>T mutation. The same pattern was found in P2, which was used as a positive control (Figure 2B, left panel). Despite the lack of mRNA expression derived from the c.545+5G>A mutation, the NFU1 protein levels of this individual were similar to those of P2 and the control (Figure 2B, right panel). To determine the effect of the c.545+5G>A mutation, we cloned exon 6 and the corresponding intronic flanking regions of both wild-type and mutant NFU1 into an Exontrap System vector (Mobitec, Göttingen, Germany). COS7 cells transfected with these plasmids were analyzed by RT-PCR and sequenced with vector-specific primers. Our results showed that the c.545+5G>A nucleotide change caused a defective splicing and skipping of exon 6 (Figures 2C and S2). These data fit well with the absence of c.545+5G>A transcript in muscle of P1 because exon 6 skipping leads to a frameshift. The predicted transcript, with a premature stop codon at position 172, was probably degraded by the nonsense-mediated decay mechanism. Unfortunately, this effect could not be fully demonstrated because individual cell lines were not available. The identification of one common mutation in all the individuals, nine of whom were homozygous and one of whom was compound heterozygous, and the fact that four of the families were of Basque origin suggests a founder effect in this population, but further studies are necessary to demonstrate it. NFU1 contains a short segment of 60 amino acid residues with homology to bacterial NifU, a multi-domain protein involved in the assembly of Fe-S clusters in the complex metalloprotein nitrogenase.9Johnson D.C. Dean D.R. Smith A.D. Johnson M.K. Structure, function, and formation of biological iron-sulfur clusters.Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2005; 74: 247-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (1093) Google Scholar Fe-S clusters are essential cofactors involved in enzymatic reactions (e.g., in aconitase), electron transfer (e.g., ferredoxins and respiratory complexes I, II, and III), and sensing (e.g., of iron by IRP1).10Beinert H. A tribute to sulfur.Eur. J. Biochem. 2000; 267: 5657-5664Crossref PubMed Scopus (120) Google Scholar Prokaryotic and eukaryotic relatives of NFU1 bind a labile Fe-S cluster in vitro, and hence it has been suggested that these proteins perform a scaffold function for the assembly of an Fe-S cluster.4Schilke B. Voisine C. Beinert H. Craig E. Evidence for a conserved system for iron metabolism in the mitochondria of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1999; 96: 10206-10211Crossref PubMed Scopus (268) Google Scholar, 5Tong W.H. Jameson G.N. Huynh B.H. Rouault T.A. Subcellular compartmentalization of human Nfu, an iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein, and its ability to assemble a [4Fe-4S] cluster.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 9762-9767Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar, 11Yuvaniyama P. Agar J.N. Cash V.L. Johnson M.K. Dean D.R. NifS-directed assembly of a transient [2Fe-2S] cluster within the NifU protein.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2000; 97: 599-604Crossref PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 12Touraine B. Boutin J.P. Marion-Poll A. Briat J.F. Peltier G. Lobréaux S. Nfu2: A scaffold protein required for [4Fe-4S] and ferredoxin iron-sulphur cluster assembly in Arabidopsis chloroplasts.Plant J. 2004; 40: 101-111Crossref PubMed Scopus (80) Google Scholar, 13Yabe T. Morimoto K. Kikuchi S. Nishio K. Terashima I. Nakai M. The Arabidopsis chloroplastic NifU-like protein CnfU, which can act as an iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein, is required for biogenesis of ferredoxin and photosystem I.Plant Cell. 2004; 16: 993-1007Crossref PubMed Scopus (122) Google Scholar, 14Balasubramanian R. Shen G. Bryant D.A. Golbeck J.H. Regulatory roles for IscA and SufA in iron homeostasis and redox stress responses in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7002.J. Bacteriol. 2006; 188: 3182-3191Crossref PubMed Scopus (76) Google Scholar, 15Angelini S. Gerez C. Ollagnier-de Choudens S. Sanakis Y. Fontecave M. Barras F. Py B. NfuA, a new factor required for maturing Fe/S proteins in Escherichia coli under oxidative stress and iron starvation conditions.J. Biol. Chem. 2008; 283: 14084-14091Crossref PubMed Scopus (123) Google Scholar, 16Bandyopadhyay S. Naik S.G. O'Carroll I.P. Huynh B.H. Dean D.R. Johnson M.K. Dos Santos P.C. A proposed role for the Azotobacter vinelandii NfuA protein as an intermediate iron-sulfur cluster carrier.J. Biol. Chem. 2008; 283: 14092-14099Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar However, the precise physiological function of the mitochondrial member of the NFU1 protein family has hitherto remained unknown, mainly because the deletion of yeast NFU1 is associated with only a weak defect of some mitochondrial Fe-S proteins.4Schilke B. Voisine C. Beinert H. Craig E. Evidence for a conserved system for iron metabolism in the mitochondria of Saccharomyces cerevisiae.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1999; 96: 10206-10211Crossref PubMed Scopus (268) Google Scholar Double deletion of NFU1 and ISU1, encoding one of the two general scaffold proteins for Fe-S cluster assembly in yeast mitochondria, is associated with more severe defects of aconitase and mitochondrial respiratory complexes, but the exact role of NFU1 and its functional relation to ISU1 remained unclear. Of particular interest here is the role of Fe-S clusters as sulfur donors in the synthesis of lipoic acid catalyzed by the radical S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) enzyme LAS in mitochondria.17Booker S.J. Cicchillo R.M. Grove T.L. Self-sacrifice in radical S-adenosylmethionine proteins.Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2007; 11: 543-552Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar Lipoic acid becomes covalently attached to specific lysine residues of four mitochondrial enzymes; the E2 subunits of PDH, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (α-KGDH), branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (BCKD), and the H protein of the GCS. The biochemistry of lipoic acid synthesis is partially understood. Current models propose a multistep process in which octanoic acid conjugated to an acyl-carrier protein (ACP) is the substrate for sulfur insertion by LAS, presumably from one of the two [4Fe-4S] clusters. Lipoylated ACP acts as an intermediate for lipoyl protein ligases, which transfer lipoic acid to target proteins.6Hiltunen J.K. Autio K.J. Schonauer M.S. Kursu V.A. Dieckmann C.L. Kastaniotis A.J. Mitochondrial fatty acid synthesis and respiration.Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2010; 1797: 1195-1202Crossref PubMed Scopus (101) Google Scholar The biochemical phenotype of the individuals was consistent with aberrations in lipoic acid-dependent pathways (see above). We therefore analyzed muscle homogenates of three individuals for protein-bound lipoic acid by immunostaining with a lipoic acid-specific antibody. This assay directly measures the product of the LAS enzyme. In agreement with previous results we detected two predominant proteins of 65 and 50 kDa, corresponding to lipoic acid-bound PDH-E2 and α-KGDH-E2, respectively.18Padmalayam I. Hasham S. Saxena U. Pillarisetti S. Lipoic acid synthase (LASY): A novel role in inflammation, mitochondrial function, and insulin resistance.Diabetes. 2009; 58: 600-608Crossref PubMed Scopus (70) Google Scholar The lipoylated protein levels of PDH-E2 were at least 60% decreased in the NFU1 individuals as compared to controls (Figure 3). In contrast, the amounts of PDH-E2 protein were unaltered, strongly suggesting that the decreased levels of E2 protein-bound lipoic acid were due to defective lipoylation. As expected, none of these individuals showed any decrease of NFU1 protein levels (Figure 3). Together, all our biochemical observations were consistent with an impairment of lipoic acid biosynthesis in NFU1 individuals, suggesting that NFU1 is required for LAS activity. Moreover, both LAS17Booker S.J. Cicchillo R.M. Grove T.L. Self-sacrifice in radical S-adenosylmethionine proteins.Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 2007; 11: 543-552Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar and NFU1 (Figure S3) are predominantly if not exclusively located in mitochondria. To study the potential role of NFU1 in Fe-S cluster maturation of LAS, we employed an established cell culture system to deplete NFU1 by RNA interference (RNAi).19Stehling O. Netz D.J. Niggemeyer B. Rösser R. Eisenstein R.S. Puccio H. Pierik A.J. Lill R. Human Nbp35 is essential for both cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly and iron homeostasis.Mol. Cell. Biol. 2008; 28: 5517-5528Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar, 20Stehling O. Sheftel A.D. Lill R. Chapter 12 Controlled expression of iron-sulfur cluster assembly components for respiratory chain complexes in mammalian cells.Methods Enzymol. 2009; 456: 209-231Crossref PubMed Scopus (15) Google Scholar HeLa cells were transfected with a pool of NFU1-specific or scrambled siRNAs (Dharmacon), and thereafter cells were grown for 3 days before biochemical analyses. We repeated this procedure twice to achieve efficient depletion of NFU1 mRNA and protein (Figures 4A and 4B ). Growth of NFU1-depleted cells was slightly decreased as compared to mock-treated or scrambled siRNA controls (Figure S4). Immunoblotting of cell extracts revealed markedly decreased levels of lipoic acid bound to the E2 subunits of PDH and α-KGDH as well as to the H protein of GCS (Figure 4C). Consistent with these findings, PDHC activity was not detectable after NFU1 depletion for 9 days (Figure 4D). In contrast, the levels and activities of cellular Fe-S proteins, including cytosolic and mitochondrial aconitases and cytosolic GPAT, were virtually unchanged. Because defects in Fe-S cluster assembly result in rapid degradation of the apoproteins,19Stehling O. Netz D.J. Niggemeyer B. Rösser R. Eisenstein R.S. Puccio H. Pierik A.J. Lill R. Human Nbp35 is essential for both cytosolic iron-sulfur protein assembly and iron homeostasis.Mol. Cell. Biol. 2008; 28: 5517-5528Crossref PubMed Scopus (92) Google Scholar these results indicated a normal maturation process (Figures 4C and 4D). Likewise, the activity of cytochrome oxidase (COX; complex IV) was unaffected upon NFU1 depletion. Even though this enzyme lacks an Fe-S cluster, synthesis of its heme A requires the function of the mitochondrial [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin Fdx2.21Sheftel A.D. Stehling O. Pierik A.J. Elsässer H.P. Mühlenhoff U. Webert H. Hobler A. Hannemann F. Bernhardt R. Lill R. Humans possess two mitochondrial ferredoxins, Fdx1 and Fdx2, with distinct roles in steroidogenesis, heme, and Fe/S cluster biosynthesis.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2010; 107: 11775-11780Crossref PubMed Scopus (214) Google Scholar In contrast, both the amount and activity of succinate dehydrogenase (SDH; complex II) were more than 5-fold decreased upon NFU1 depletion (Figures 4C and 4D). Respiratory-chain activities examined in the available frozen muscle extracts of three NFU1 individuals showed no deficiencies in complexes I+III and complex IV. However, the activities of complexes II+III were low, consistent with a SDH deficiency in these individuals (Table 2). Together, these results strongly suggest that NFU1 is specifically required for the maturation of both LAS and SDH, but it appears to be dispensable for other tested Fe-S proteins. The functional defect of LAS explains the defect in lipoic acid biosynthesis. The in vitro binding of a labile Fe-S cluster to NFU1 proteins from several species led to the suggestion that NFU1 might act as an Fe-S scaffold protein.5Tong W.H. Jameson G.N. Huynh B.H. Rouault T.A. Subcellular compartmentalization of human Nfu, an iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein, and its ability to assemble a [4Fe-4S] cluster.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003; 100: 9762-9767Crossref PubMed Scopus (183) Google Scholar, 11Yuvaniyama P. Agar J.N. Cash V.L. Johnson M.K. Dean D.R. NifS-directed assembly of a transient [2Fe-2S] cluster within the NifU protein.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2000; 97: 599-604Crossref PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 16Bandyopadhyay S. Naik S.G. O'Carroll I.P. Huynh B.H. Dean D.R. Johnson M.K. Dos Santos P.C. A proposed role for the Azotobacter vinelandii NfuA protein as an intermediate iron-sulfur cluster carrier.J. Biol. Chem. 2008; 283: 14092-14099Crossref PubMed Scopus (94) Google Scholar However, it remained unclear whether mitochondrial NFU1 indeed performs such a role in vivo and what the relation might be to the major Fe-S scaffold protein ISCU,22Tong W.H. Rouault T.A. Functions of mitochondrial ISCU and cytosolic ISCU in mammalian iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis and iron homeostasis.Cell Metab. 2006; 3: 199-210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar alterations in which lead to myopathy with exercise intolerance.23Olsson A. Lind L. Thornell L.E. Holmberg M. Myopathy with lactic acidosis is linked to chromosome 12q23.3-24.11 and caused by an intron mutation in the ISCU gene resulting in a splicing defect.Hum. Mol. Genet. 2008; 17: 1666-1672Crossref PubMed Scopus (102) Google Scholar, 24Mochel F. Knight M.A. Tong W.H. Hernandez D. Ayyad K. Taivassalo T. Andersen P.M. Singleton A. Rouault T.A. Fischbeck K.H. Haller R.G. Splice mutation in the iron-sulfur cluster scaffold protein ISCU causes myopathy with exercise intolerance.Am. J. Hum. Genet. 2008; 82: 652-660Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (175) Google Scholar To address this issue, we depleted ISCU by RNAi and examined the effects on the levels and function of various Fe-S proteins (Figures 5A and 5B ). In contrast to the results for NFU1-depleted cells, the deficiency of ISCU severely affected cell growth and resulted in hardly any cell material after the second transfection (Figure S5). Immunostaining of cell extracts showed a substantial decrease in the levels of virtually all analyzed Fe-S proteins, including mitochondrial and cytosolic aconitases, SDH, and cytosolic GPAT upon depletion of ISCU, probably as a result of the instability of the respective Fe-S apoproteins (Figure 5C). Moreover, the levels of the lipoic acid-containing subunits of α-KGDH, PDH, and GCS were substantially decreased, suggesting a potential defect in LAS maturation upon ISCU depletion. Treatment with scrambled siRNAs was without severe effects. Accordingly, enzyme activities measured after 3 days of ISCU depletion showed a strong decrease for PDHC, mitochondrial and cytosolic aconitases, and SDH (Figure 5D). COX activity, as a non-Fe-S control, was only slightly affected. These findings indicate that virtually all tested Fe-S proteins were severely impaired by the loss of ISCU function. Hence, the results support the major role of ISCU as a Fe-S scaffold protein22Tong W.H. Rouault T.A. Functions of mitochondrial ISCU and cytosolic ISCU in mammalian iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis and iron homeostasis.Cell Metab. 2006; 3: 199-210Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (244) Google Scholar and in turn make a general scaffold function for NFU1 unlikely. Rather, NFU1 appears to play a more specific, auxiliary role in the biogenesis of SDH and LAS, e.g., in the dedicated transfer of a NFU1-bound Fe-S cluster to these target Fe-S apoproteins. To better understand the mechanistic role of NFU1 and to get an initial idea of the functional consequences of the p.Gly208Cys change in individuals, we took advantage of the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Previously, no specific defects that would allow mechanistic conclusions had been observed upon deleti