To examine the local actions of IGF signaling in skeletal tissue in a physiological context, we have used Cre-mediated recombination to disrupt selectively in mouse osteoblasts the gene encoding the type 1 IGF receptor (Igf1r). Mice carrying this bone-specific mutation were of normal size and weight but, in comparison with normal siblings, demonstrated a striking decrease in cancellous bone volume, connectivity, and trabecular number, and an increase in trabecular spacing. These abnormalities correlated with a striking decrease in the rate of mineralization of osteoid that occurred despite an unexpected osteoblast and osteoclast hyperactivity, detected from the significant increments in both osteoblast and erosion surfaces. Our findings indicate that IGF1 is essential for coupling matrix biosynthesis to sustained mineralization. This action is likely to be particularly important during the pubertal growth spurt when rapid bone formation and consolidation are required. To examine the local actions of IGF signaling in skeletal tissue in a physiological context, we have used Cre-mediated recombination to disrupt selectively in mouse osteoblasts the gene encoding the type 1 IGF receptor (Igf1r). Mice carrying this bone-specific mutation were of normal size and weight but, in comparison with normal siblings, demonstrated a striking decrease in cancellous bone volume, connectivity, and trabecular number, and an increase in trabecular spacing. These abnormalities correlated with a striking decrease in the rate of mineralization of osteoid that occurred despite an unexpected osteoblast and osteoclast hyperactivity, detected from the significant increments in both osteoblast and erosion surfaces. Our findings indicate that IGF1 is essential for coupling matrix biosynthesis to sustained mineralization. This action is likely to be particularly important during the pubertal growth spurt when rapid bone formation and consolidation are required. Body size and linear bone growth in mammals is affected by cellular signaling pathways controlled by growth factors and hormones (1Efstratiadis A. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 1998; 42: 955-976PubMed Google Scholar). In this regard, a major growth-promoting signaling system consisting of the insulin-like growth factors (IGF, 1The abbreviations used are: IGF, insulin-like growth factor; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; X-gal, 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-d-galactopyranoside; AP, alkaline phosphatase IGF1 and IGF2) and the type 1 IGF receptor (IGF1R) regulates embryonic growth, as shown by gene knockout experiments in mice (1Efstratiadis A. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 1998; 42: 955-976PubMed Google Scholar). IGF1 acting through IGF1R also plays central roles in postnatal growth either independently or by mediating growth hormone functions (2Lupu F. Terwilliger J.D. Lee K. Segre G.V. Efstratiadis A. Dev. Biol. 2001; 229: 141-162Crossref PubMed Scopus (643) Google Scholar). Signaling through the IGF1R tyrosine kinase receptor not only promotes cell proliferation, but also mediates anti-apoptotic actions (3Baserga R. Resnicoff M. D'Ambrosio C. Valentinis B. Vitam. Horm. 1997; 53: 65-98Crossref PubMed Scopus (61) Google Scholar, 4Nakae J. Kido Y. Accili D. Endocr. Rev. 2001; 22: 818-835Crossref PubMed Scopus (357) Google Scholar). The IGF system includes a second receptor (IGF2R) devoid of signaling properties, but serving IGF2 turnover, and at least six IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) of obscure functional significance (single and also some double mouse mutations ablating IGFBPs have not revealed as yet significant consequences in growth impairment). 2J. Pintar, personal communication. The IGFs are produced locally in various tissues, including bones, and exert autocrine/paracrine functions, but they are also present in serum, mostly associated with IGFBPs. Whether the circulating IGFs act systemically as hormones is currently controversial (5Yakar S. Liu J.L. Stannard B. Butler A. Accili D. Sauer B. LeRoith D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 7324-7329Crossref PubMed Scopus (1191) Google Scholar, 6D'Ercole A.J. Calikoglu A.S. Growth Horm. IGF Res. 2001; 11: 261-265Crossref PubMed Scopus (21) Google Scholar). A number of in vitro and in vivo studies are progressively unraveling the significance of the IGF system for skeletal development and metabolic control (for a review see Ref. 7Conover C.A. Growth Horm. IGF Res. 2000; 10 Suppl. B: S107-S110Crossref PubMed Scopus (46) Google Scholar). IGF1, by stimulating the proliferation of chondrocytes in the growth plate, plays an essential role in longitudinal bone growth (2Lupu F. Terwilliger J.D. Lee K. Segre G.V. Efstratiadis A. Dev. Biol. 2001; 229: 141-162Crossref PubMed Scopus (643) Google Scholar) and is also involved in the formation of trabecular bone. In fact, chondrocytes and bone cells produce IGFs and express IGF1R (see for example Refs. 8Shinar D.M. Endo N. Halperin D. Rodan G.A. Weinreb M. Endocrinology. 1993; 132: 1158-1167Crossref PubMed Scopus (88) Google Scholar and 9Wang E. Wang J. Chin E. Zhou J. Bondy C.A. Endocrinology. 1995; 136: 2741-2751Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Studies using osteoblast culture systems have shown that IGF1 stimulates osteoblast proliferation, accelerates their differentiation, and enhances bone matrix production (10Canalis E. Bone. 1993; 14: 273-276Crossref PubMed Scopus (95) Google Scholar, 11Birnbaum R.S. Bowsher R.R. Wiren K.M. J. Endocrinol. 1995; 144: 251-259Crossref PubMed Scopus (55) Google Scholar). In addition, IGF1 is being recognized as a critical factor for bone cell survival (12Parfitt A.M. Mundy G.R. Roodman G.D. Hughes D.E. Boyce B.F. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1996; 11: 150-159Crossref PubMed Scopus (292) Google Scholar, 13Hughes D.E. Boyce B.F. Mol. Pathol. 1997; 50: 132-137Crossref PubMed Scopus (90) Google Scholar, 14Hill P.A. Tumber A. Meikle M.C. Endocrinology. 1997; 138: 3849-3858Crossref PubMed Scopus (186) Google Scholar). Finally, IGF1 also appears to regulate bone resorption, either directly or through its action on osteoblasts that stimulate in turn the formation and function of osteoclasts (15Hill P.A. Reynolds J.J. Meikle M.C. Endocrinology. 1995; 136: 124-131Crossref PubMed Google Scholar). Because of complex relationships in the signaling processes of the IGF regulatory system (1Efstratiadis A. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 1998; 42: 955-976PubMed Google Scholar) on one hand, and intricacies in bone development (16Olsen B.R. Reginato A.M. Wang W. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2000; 16: 191-220Crossref PubMed Scopus (780) Google Scholar, 17Karsenty G. Wagner E.F. Dev. Cell. 2002; 2: 389-406Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1204) Google Scholar) on the other, it has been quite difficult to define individualin vivo aspects of the skeletal actions of IGF1, especially those brought about by local (autocrine/paracrine) mechanisms. Nevertheless, progress is being made with the use of genetically modified mice. For example, mice with targeted overexpression of IGF1 in osteoblasts exhibited an increased bone formation rate and increased trabecular and cortical bone volume (18Zhao G. Monier-Faugere M.C. Langub M.C. Geng Z. Nakayama T. Pike J.W. Chernausek S.D. Rosen C.J. Donahue L.R. Malluche H.H. Fagin J.A. Clemens T.L. Endocrinology. 2000; 141: 2674-2682Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar). Remarkably, these changes occurred without an increase in the total number of osteoblasts, suggesting that locally produced IGF1 could exert its anabolic effects primarily by increasing the performance of resident osteoblasts. Nevertheless, firm establishment of causal relationships necessitates complete ablation of IGF signaling by elimination of IGF1R function. In this regard, however, the invariable neonatal lethality ofIgf1r nullizygous mice (19Liu J.P. Baker J. Perkins A.S. Robertson E.J. Efstratiadis A. Cell. 1993; 75: 59-72Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (2597) Google Scholar) precluded an examination of the skeletal role of IGF1 during postnatal growth and development. To circumvent this problem, we have now disrupted selectively theIgf1r gene in mouse osteoblasts using thecre/loxP recombination system, and evaluated the bone phenotype. As we report here, this site-specific ablation of IGF signaling impairs the rate of bone formation and severely retards mineralization of osteoid resulting in decreased cancellous bone volume and altered trabecular structure. A DNA fragment representing the human osteocalcin (OC) promoter (20Clemens T.L. Tang H. Maeda S. Kesterson R.A. DeMayo F. Pike J.W. Gundberg C.M. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1997; 12: 1570-1576Crossref PubMed Scopus (83) Google Scholar) was cloned into the pBluescript SK(−) vector to create pOC. A plasmid containing a cDNA encoding cre, which was modified to include a nuclear localization sequence and the human β-actin 3′-untranslated region (provided by Dr. Thomas Doetschman, University of Cincinnati), was cloned into the pKBpA plasmid (18Zhao G. Monier-Faugere M.C. Langub M.C. Geng Z. Nakayama T. Pike J.W. Chernausek S.D. Rosen C.J. Donahue L.R. Malluche H.H. Fagin J.A. Clemens T.L. Endocrinology. 2000; 141: 2674-2682Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar) downstream from a sequence representing the rabbit β-globin second intron flanked by remnants of truncated exons. The derived fused (globin-cre) sequences were then subcloned into pOC downstream from the osteocalcin promoter, to create pOC-cre (Fig. 1 A). The insert of this plasmid (OC-cre) was excised and microinjected into fertilized eggs (FVB-N mouse strain). Transgenic lines were established from 11 founders that were identified by Southern analysis of genomic DNA. Two of the transgenic lines (4 and 6) were analyzed in detail and used in our experiments (see “Results”). Differences in the level and specificity of transgenic expression between the two lines were not detected. Expression of cre mRNA was determined by Northern analysis of total RNA (10 μg per lane) using acre cDNA probe. All animals received humane care in compliance with the local Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee. OC-cre mice were mated with homozygous conditional mutants carrying modified Igf1ralleles (with loxP sites flanking exon 3; (21Dietrich P. Dragatsis I. Xuan S. Zeitlin S. Efstratiadis A. Mamm. Genome. 2000; 11: 196-205Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar), to generate OC-cre/Igf1rflox/+ progeny, which were used in subsequent crosses (see “Results”). The OC-cre mice were also crossed with Z/AP reporter mice (22Lobe C.G. Koop K.E. Kreppner W. Lomeli H. Gertsenstein M. Nagy A. Dev. Biol. 1999; 208: 281-292Crossref PubMed Scopus (452) Google Scholar), to estimate the efficiency of Cre-mediated recombination (see “Results”). For routine genotyping of progeny, thecre transgene was detected by PCR (1 min at 94 °C, 1 min at 53 °C, and 1 min at 72 °C, for 30 cycles) using the primers: 5′-CAAATAGCCCTGGCAGATTC-3′ (forward) and 5′-TGATACAAGGGACATCTTCC-3′ (reverse) to generate a 260-bp product corresponding to a portion of the OC promoter and the rabbit β-globin intron. The Igf1rlocus was detected by PCR (1 min at 94 °C, 1 min at 61 °C, and 1 min at 72 °C, for 30 cycles) with the primers 2 and 3 (see Fig. 1): 5′-CTTCCCAGCTTGCTACTCTAGG-3′ (forward) and 5′-CAGGCTTGCAATGAGACATGGG-3′ (reverse), which generate a 120-bp product from the wild-type allele or a 220-bp product from the floxed allele. To detect the recombined allele, another primer (primer 1; Fig. 1) 5′-TGAGACGTAGCGAGATTGCTGTA-3′ was used in combination with primer 3, to generate a 320-bp product. Whole-mount lacZ staining was used to genotype the Z/AP reporter mice, as described below. To determine the specificity and efficiency of Cre-mediated recombination, OC-cre mice from two Cre-expressing lines (3 and 6) were crossed with the Z/AP mice (17Karsenty G. Wagner E.F. Dev. Cell. 2002; 2: 389-406Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1204) Google Scholar) carrying a “double reporter” transgene (see Fig. 2 A and “Results”). When recombination occurs, the LacZ site is excised, and the downstream human Hplap gene is expressed. Mice were sacrificed and organs were harvested, rinsed in PBS, and fixed with 2% paraformaldehyde plus 0.2% glutaraldehyde in PBS on ice for 2 h. For whole-mount staining, each calvarium was cut in half longitudinally, one half was used for lacZ staining and the other for AP as described (22Lobe C.G. Koop K.E. Kreppner W. Lomeli H. Gertsenstein M. Nagy A. Dev. Biol. 1999; 208: 281-292Crossref PubMed Scopus (452) Google Scholar). For lacZ staining, the fixed samples were washed three times for 5 min in lacZ wash buffer (2 mmMgCl2, 0.01% sodium deoxycholate, 0.02% Nonidet-P40, 5 mm EGTA in PBS). Staining was carried out in lacZ staining buffer (1 mg/ml X-gal, 5 mm potassium ferrocyanide, and 5 mm potassium ferricyanide in lacZ wash buffer) at 37 °C for 4 h to overnight, with shaking and protection from light. After staining, samples were rinsed with PBS, post-fixed in 2% glutaraldehyde and 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 m sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7.3) for 10 min, rinsed twice with PBS, and then twice with 70% ethanol prior to storage in 70% ethanol at 4 °C. For alkaline phosphatase (AP) staining, the fixed calvaria were washed three times with PBS for 5 min, and then incubated in PBS at 70–75 °C for 30 min to inactivate endogenous AP. Samples were rinsed in PBS, washed in AP buffer (100 mm Tris-HCl, pH 9.5, 50 mm MgSO4, 0.01% sodium deoxycholate, 0.02% Nonidet-P40) for 10 min, and stained with NBT/BCIP stain (0.4 mg/ml NBT (nitroblue tetrazolium chloride), 0.19 mg/ml BCIP (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-phosphate, toluidine-salt), in AP buffer) for at least 90 min or until staining was evident. After staining, samples were washed in PBS and 70% ethanol and stored in 70% ethanol. Stained calvaria halves were dehydrated, infiltrated and embedded in paraffin. Blocks were sectioned at 10 μm, placed onto slides, and coverslipped. Non-skeletal tissues were sectioned prior to staining. Samples were washed in PBS three times for 5 min after fixation and cryoprotected in 15% sucrose in PBS for 1 h at 4 °C and then in 30% sucrose in PBS overnight at 4 °C. They were then embedded in OCT, sectioned, and placed onto slides. Prior to staining, slides were refixed in cold PBS containing 0.2% glutaraldehyde for 10 min. For lacZ staining, slides were washed three times for 5 min in lacZ wash buffer and then stained in lacZ staining buffer for 3–4 h at 37 °C, protected from light. After staining, slides were rinsed in PBS, postfixed (see above) before dehydration through a graded ethanol series and coverslipped. For AP staining, after fixation, slides were washed three times in PBS for 5 min and endogenous AP was inactivated by incubating slides in PBS at 75 °C for 30 min. Slides were then rinsed with PBS, washed in AP buffer for 10 min, and stained with NBT/BCIP stain for 5–15 min at room temperature. After staining, slides were washed in PBS, dehydrated through an ethanol series, and then coverslipped. The three-dimensional microarchitecture of the intact right femurs was evaluated using a high-resolution, desktop microtomographic imaging system (μCT20, Scanco Medical AG, Bassersdorf, Switzerland) (23Ruegsegger P. Koller B. Muller R. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1996; 58: 24-29Crossref PubMed Scopus (813) Google Scholar). Three regions were evaluated: the entire femur, cortical bone in the mid-diaphysis, and secondary spongiosa in the distal metaphysis. For evaluation of the entire femur and mid-diaphyseal cortical bone, the bone was scanned using a 34-μm slice increment, requiring ∼100–150 μCT slices per specimen. For evaluation of the secondary spongiosa in the distal metaphysis, the bone was scanned using a 9-μm slice increment, beginning approximately at the growth plate and extending proximally for 200 CT slices. A region of interest including only cancellous bone was constructed, beginning 0.25 mm proximal to the growth plate and extending proximally for 1.25 mm. Images were reconstructed, filtered, and thresholded as previously described (24Alexander J.M. Bab I. Fish S. Muller R. Uchiyama T. Gronowicz G. Nahounou M. Zhao Q. White D.W. Chorev M. Gazit D. Rosenblatt M. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2001; 16: 1665-1673Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). The images were stored in three-dimensional arrays with an isotropic voxel size of either 34 μm (for the whole bone) or 9 μm (for the distal femoral metaphysis). Morphometric parameters were computed using a direct three-dimensional approach that does not rely on any assumptions about whether the underlying structure is either plate or rod-like (25Pfeilschifter J. Laukhuf F. Muller-Beckmann B. Blum W.F. Pfister T. Ziegler R. J. Clin. Investig. 1995; 96: 767-774Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). For the whole bone, we computed the total bone volume (BV, mm3) and the apparent volume density (AVD, %), defined as the percent of mineralized tissue volume divided by the total volume defined by the external bone envelope (24Alexander J.M. Bab I. Fish S. Muller R. Uchiyama T. Gronowicz G. Nahounou M. Zhao Q. White D.W. Chorev M. Gazit D. Rosenblatt M. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2001; 16: 1665-1673Crossref PubMed Scopus (140) Google Scholar). For the cortical region, the bone volume (BV, mm3), bone volume density (BV/TV, %), and cortical thickness (μm) were computed in a 1-mm thick region at the mid-diaphysis. For the cancellous bone region in the distal metaphysis, bone volume density (BV/TV, %), trabecular thickness (Tb.Th, μm), trabecular separation (Tb.Sp, μm), trabecular number (Tb.N, mm−1), and connectivity density (mm−3) were assessed. Distal femora and calvaria were fixed in 100% ethanol. After dehydration, bone samples were embedded in methyl methacrylate (26Malluche H.H. Faugere M.C. Atlas of Mineralized Bone Histology. Karger, New York1986Google Scholar), and 4-μm sections were cut with a heavy-duty microtome (Microm, C. Zeiss, Thornwood, NY). This thickness allows analysis of the same histologic features in slides prepared for light and fluorescent microscopy. Four bone sections were stained using the modified Masson-Goldner trichrome technique (27Goldner J. Am. J. Pathol. 1997; 14: 237-243Google Scholar), and four others serial to the stained sections were left unstained for fluorescent microscopy. Static and dynamic parameters of bone structure, formation, and resorption were measured using a semi-automatic method (Osteoplan II, Kontron, Munich, Germany) (18Zhao G. Monier-Faugere M.C. Langub M.C. Geng Z. Nakayama T. Pike J.W. Chernausek S.D. Rosen C.J. Donahue L.R. Malluche H.H. Fagin J.A. Clemens T.L. Endocrinology. 2000; 141: 2674-2682Crossref PubMed Scopus (271) Google Scholar, 28Malluche H.H. Sherman D. Meyer W. Massry S.G. Calcif. Tissue Int. 1982; 34: 439-448Crossref PubMed Scopus (143) Google Scholar). In 6-week-old mice, measurements were confined to the secondary spongiosa of the distal femur to ensure that only remodeling sites were analyzed. In 3-week-old mice, measurements were made in the epiphysis due to the lack of sufficient trabecular bone in the secondary spongiosa. For dynamic endpoints, 3- and 6-week-old animals were injected with calcein intraperitoneally on days 1 and 4 and sacrificed 2 or 3 days later. All parameters comply with the recommendations of the Histomorphometry Nomenclature Committee of the American Society of Bone and Mineral Research (29Parfitt A.M. Drezner M.K. Glorieux F.H. Kanis J.A. Malluche H. Meunier P.J. Ott S.M. Recker R.R. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1987; 2: 595-610Crossref PubMed Scopus (4921) Google Scholar). Results are expressed as mean ± S.E. All statistical tests were two-sided. An assigned significance level of 0.05 was used. Comparability of the two groups at any given time was assessed using the Mann-Whitney U test. Comparability of data from a group at different time points was done using the Kruskal-Wallis H test. All computations were performed using the SPSS software package for Windows release 7.5 (SPSS, Chicago, IL). Tissue-specific conditional mutagenesis requires crosses between Cre-producing and Cre-responding strains of mice. Responders used in this study, in which exon 3 of theIgf1r gene is “floxed” (flanked by loxP sites in direct orientation), have been described previously (21Dietrich P. Dragatsis I. Xuan S. Zeitlin S. Efstratiadis A. Mamm. Genome. 2000; 11: 196-205Crossref PubMed Scopus (104) Google Scholar). To drivecre expression in the osteoblasts of producer mice, we used the osteocalcin (OC) gene promoter and generated OC-cretransgenic mice (see “Materials and Methods”). Northern analysis demonstrated that the transgene encoding the recombinase was expressed in bones and in no other of the examined tissues (Fig.1 B). For the purposes of our experiments, it was important to demonstrate the specificity and efficiency of Cre-mediated recombination in osteoblasts. However, the floxed Igf1r allele could not serve itself as a reporter for this purpose, because the heterogeneity of skeletal tissue constituents precluded an assessment of the level of DNA excision by Southern analysis (osteoblasts represent only a minor bone component). Also unsuitable were (feasible, but difficult for bone tissue) alternative analyses, such as in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, since quantitative results could not be obtained. For these reasons, we used an indirect approach and crossed OC-cre producers with Z/AP mice (17Karsenty G. Wagner E.F. Dev. Cell. 2002; 2: 389-406Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1204) Google Scholar) carrying a “double reporter” transgene, which consists of a sequence (βgeo) encoding β-galactosidase and a selectable marker flanked by twoloxP sites that is followed by a human placental alkaline phosphatase (hPLAP) gene (Fig.2 A). The latter gene is expressed after Cre-mediated excision of βgeo. Thus, the efficiency of Cre action can be estimated by determining in various tissues the reduction in X-gal staining and the appearance of staining for alkaline phosphatase. To determine the time of commencement of the OC-cretransgene expression during development, whole calvaria harvested from OC-cre/Z/AP embryos were stained for AP. As shown in Fig. 2 B, AP-positive cells were first detected in E17 calvaria at the primary ossification centers. Examination of sections from these calvaria revealed that the AP-positive elements were osteoblasts and osteocytes (Fig.2 C). Such sections were also stained for X-gal, to estimate the efficiency of Cre-mediated recombination. Osteoblasts, osteocytes, lining cells and cells within the marrow cavities of calvaria fromZ/AP embryos consistently stained positive for X-gal and were AP-negative (Fig. 2 C). In contrast, calvaria derived from OC-cre/Z/AP double transgenics exhibited a marked reduction in X-gal staining and the appearance of AP staining in the cells of the osteoblast lineage (Fig.2 C; the latter staining was less uniform than that for X-gal, possibly due to less efficient penetration of the AP reaction reagents into the whole mount preparation). In the double transgenic embryos, cells within the marrow (likely representing derivatives of hematopoetic origin) continued to stain positive for X-gal. To also provide an approximate quantitative estimate for the degree of Cre-mediated DNA excision brought about by the OC-cretransgene (“excision index”), we counted the numbers of X-gal-positive osteoblasts and osteocytes in calvarial sections from OC-cre/Z/AP andZ/AP (control) mice (4 sections each). We found that 84.4 ± 0.7% of the cells being monitored (2752 of 3261 cells) were positive for β-galactosidase expression in the control mice, whereas the corresponding score in the double transgenic calvarial sections was only 9.8 ± 1.4% (248 of 2530 cells). Thus, the estimated excision index in osteoblasts and osteocytes was [1-(9.8/84.4)] × 100 or 88.4%. Non-skeletal tissues including bladder, heart, and skeletal muscle from the same OC-cre/Z/AP mice consistently stained positive for lacZ and negative for AP (Fig. 2 D). Moreover, PCR analysis using DNA templates from tissues of OC-cre/Igf1r flox/floxoffspring confirmed that Cre-mediated recombination occurred exclusively in bone (Fig.3 B). Despite the fact that a direct estimation of the excision index for theIgf1rflox allele in osteoblasts and osteocytes is not feasible, we believe that assigning a level of nearly 90% by extrapolation from the results with the Z/AP reporter (documenting the successful performance of the OC-cre transgene) is justifiable, on the basis of the following consistent results. Whenever the Igf1rflox locus was used in combination with various high-performance cre transgenes analogous to OC-cre, including a liver-specific albumin-cre(5Yakar S. Liu J.L. Stannard B. Butler A. Accili D. Sauer B. LeRoith D. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999; 96: 7324-7329Crossref PubMed Scopus (1191) Google Scholar), a brain-specific CaMKIIα-cre (30Dragatsis I. Zeitlin S. Genesis. 2000; 26: 133-135Crossref PubMed Scopus (138) Google Scholar), a pancreatic β-cell-specific RIP-cre (31Herrera P.L. Development. 2000; 127: 2317-2322Crossref PubMed Google Scholar), and a mammary gland-specific WAP-cre (32Ludwig T. Fisher P. Murty V. Efstratiadis A. Oncogene. 2001; 20: 3937-3948Crossref PubMed Scopus (89) Google Scholar), practically complete Cre-mediated recombination has been observed. 3S. Xuan and A. Efstratiadis, unpublished data. Among the progeny of crosses between OC-cre/Igf1r +/flox andIgf1r flox/flox mice, female animals with an OC-cre/Igf1r flox/floxgenotype were selected for a detailed study of mutational effects using the femur as a long bone representative, whereas theirIgf1r flox/flox female siblings served as controls. The abnormalities described below were qualitatively similar, but less pronounced in male experimental animals (data not shown). Because of the expression of the cre transgene from E17 onward, osteoblasts appearing for the first time postnatally in the long bones of OC-cre/Igf1r flox/floxmice possess an Igf1r Δflox/Δfloxmutant genotype. For simplicity, these experimental animals will be referred to below as ΔIgf1r mice, although in all cells other than osteoblasts the floxed alleles of the Igf1r gene remain intact. Also by convention, the genetically modified, but normal (control) mice will be considered as indistinguishable from wild-type. To assess quantitatively bone mass, architecture, and turnover, static and dynamic histomorphometric analyses were performed on female ΔIgf1r and control littermates at 3 and 6 weeks of age, when the skeletal modeling in the mouse is very active (33Richman C. Kutilek S. Miyakoshi N. Srivastava A.K. Beamer W.G. Donahue L.R. Rosen C.J. Wergedal J.E. Baylink D.J. Mohan S. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2001; 16: 386-397Crossref PubMed Scopus (91) Google Scholar). At these ages, the mutant and normal animals were indistinguishable in size and weight. Moreover, no differences in femoral lengths were detected at 6 weeks (measured in mm with a dial caliper; 14.31 ± 0.45 and 14.41 ± 0.34 for ΔIgf1r and control female mice, respectively, with corresponding values for males of 15.18 ± 0.46 and 15.0 ± 0.53). Thus, disruption of the Igf1r gene in osteoblasts did not appear to affect the overall postnatal growth in the mutants. Although the 6-week measurements were focused on the secondary spongiosa of the distal femur, the histomorphometric analysis at 3 weeks was performed on the femoral epiphysis because at this age there is a greater amount of bone at this site (TableI). These quantitative data, which were consistent with qualitative evaluations of the trabecular bone in the primary and secondary spongiosa, revealed that the rate of epiphyseal bone formation (normalized for bone surface) was dramatically reduced in ΔIgf1r mice (∼42% of normal; Table I and Fig.4). Moreover, significant reductions in osteoblast and osteoclast numbers per bone perimeter (67–69% of normal) were observed (Table I and Fig. 4). However, differences between mutants and controls in trabecular bone volume fraction or architecture were not detected at this time point.Table IBone histomorphometryBone parameteraValues are shown as mean ± S.E. (n = 7 per group at 3 weeks; n= 8 per group at 6 weeks).3 weeks (epiphysis)6 weeks (secondary spongiosa)Control (C)Mutant (M)M/CdMutant to control ratios (M/C; expressed as percentages) are shown only for values exhibiting statistically significant differences.ControlMutantM/CdMutant to control ratios (M/C; expressed as percentages) are shown only for values exhibiting statistically significant differences.Bone structureBone volume/tissue volume (BV/TV; %)3.08 ± 0.752.47 ± 0.495.73 ± 0.653.09 ± 0.34cp < 0.01.53.9Trabecular thickness (Tb.Th; μm)19.0 ± 1.820.5 ± 1.322.3 ± 1.5616.8 ± 0.65cp < 0.01.75.3Trabecular number (Tb.N; /mm)1.51 ± 0.241.19 ± 0.212.58 ± 0.231.83 ± 0.17bp < 0.05.70.9Trabecular separation (Tb.Sp; μm)753 ± 127980 ± 158388 ± 37557 ± 47bp < 0.05.143.6Bone formationOsteoid volume/bone volume (OV/BV; %)3.43 ± 0.762.84 ± 1.24.93 ± 0.978.36 ± 1.08bp < 0.05.169.6Osteoid surface/bone surface (OS/BS; %)17 ± 3.5811.86 ± 2.4820.65 ± 2.9729.82 ± 1.99bp < 0.05.144.4Osteoid thickness (O.Th; μm)3.01 ± 0.393.06 ± 1.123.54 ± 0.293.84 ± 0.35Osteoblast surface/bone surface (Ob.S/BS; %)22.5 ± 2.2813.8 ± 1.94bp < 0.05.61.317.9 ± 3.1226.0 ± 1.89bp < 0.05.145.3Osteoblast number/bone perimeter (NOb/BPm; no./100 mm)1498 ± 1161039 ± 128bp < 0.05.69.41364 ± 2481833 ± 121Bone erosionErosion surface/bone surface (ES/BS; %)14.1 ± 1.6812.0 ± 1.4814.0 ± 2.325.9 ± 2.47cp < 0.01.185.0Erosion depth (E.De; μm)5.83 ± 0.47.91 ± 1.595.31 ± 0.64.87 ± 0.36Osteoblast surface (Oc.S/BS; %)6.87 ± 0.954.8 ± 0.877.97 ± 0.6911.6 ± 2.53Osteoclast number/bone perimeter (NOc/BPm; no./100 mm)232 ± 21156 ± 20bp < 0.05.67.2290 ± 38418 ± 98Bone dynamicsMineral apposition rate (M