Background & Aims: Individuals with a strong family history of pancreatic cancer and persons with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) have an increased risk for pancreatic cancer. This study screened for early pancreatic neoplasia and compared the pancreatic abnormalities in high-risk individuals and control subjects. Methods: High-risk individuals with PJS or a strong family history of pancreatic cancer were prospectively evaluated with baseline and 12-month computed tomography (CT) scan and endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS). If EUS was abnormal, EUS–fine-needle aspiration and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) were performed. Surgery was offered to patients with potentially neoplastic lesions. Radiologic findings and pathologic diagnoses were compared. Patients undergoing EUS and/or ERCP for benign non-pancreatic indications were concurrently enrolled as control subjects. Results: Seventy-eight high-risk patients (72 from familial pancreatic cancer kindreds, 6 PJS) and 149 control patients were studied. To date, 8 patients with pancreatic neoplasia have been confirmed by surgery or fine-needle aspiration (10% yield of screening); 6 patients had 8 benign intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs), 1 had an IPMN that progressed to invasive ductal adenocarcinoma, and 1 had pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia. EUS and CT also diagnosed 3 patients with 5 extrapancreatic neoplasms. At EUS and ERCP abnormalities suggestive of chronic pancreatitis were more common in high-risk patients than in control subjects. Conclusions: Screening EUS and CT diagnosed significant asymptomatic pancreatic and extrapancreatic neoplasms in high-risk individuals. IPMN should be considered a part of the phenotype of familial pancreatic cancer. Abnormalities suggestive of chronic pancreatitis are identified more commonly at EUS and ERCP in high-risk individuals. Background & Aims: Individuals with a strong family history of pancreatic cancer and persons with Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) have an increased risk for pancreatic cancer. This study screened for early pancreatic neoplasia and compared the pancreatic abnormalities in high-risk individuals and control subjects. Methods: High-risk individuals with PJS or a strong family history of pancreatic cancer were prospectively evaluated with baseline and 12-month computed tomography (CT) scan and endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS). If EUS was abnormal, EUS–fine-needle aspiration and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) were performed. Surgery was offered to patients with potentially neoplastic lesions. Radiologic findings and pathologic diagnoses were compared. Patients undergoing EUS and/or ERCP for benign non-pancreatic indications were concurrently enrolled as control subjects. Results: Seventy-eight high-risk patients (72 from familial pancreatic cancer kindreds, 6 PJS) and 149 control patients were studied. To date, 8 patients with pancreatic neoplasia have been confirmed by surgery or fine-needle aspiration (10% yield of screening); 6 patients had 8 benign intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs), 1 had an IPMN that progressed to invasive ductal adenocarcinoma, and 1 had pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia. EUS and CT also diagnosed 3 patients with 5 extrapancreatic neoplasms. At EUS and ERCP abnormalities suggestive of chronic pancreatitis were more common in high-risk patients than in control subjects. Conclusions: Screening EUS and CT diagnosed significant asymptomatic pancreatic and extrapancreatic neoplasms in high-risk individuals. IPMN should be considered a part of the phenotype of familial pancreatic cancer. Abnormalities suggestive of chronic pancreatitis are identified more commonly at EUS and ERCP in high-risk individuals. See CME exam on page 665 and editorial on page 684. See CME exam on page 665 and editorial on page 684. Pancreatic cancer is a deadly disease, with an overall 5-year relative survival of only 4.6%.1Ries L, Eisner M, Kosary C, et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2002. National Cancer Institute 2005. Available at http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2002/, based on November 2004 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site.Google Scholar One of the reasons for the poor outcome is the advanced stage at which most of the carcinomas are diagnosed and the very high rate of unresectability in nearly all symptomatic patients. When curative resection is attempted, the best reported 5-year survival rate for pancreatic adenocarcinomas in the head is still only 26%.2Yeo C.J. Cameron J.L. Lillemoe K.D. et al.Pancreaticoduodenectomy for cancer of the head of the pancreas. 201 patients.Ann Surg. 1995; 221: 721-733Crossref PubMed Scopus (959) Google Scholar Nearly all survivors have early stage disease.3Cleary S.P. Gryfe R. Guindi M. et al.Prognostic factors in resected pancreatic adenocarcinoma analysis of actual 5-year survivors.J Am Coll Surg. 2004; 198: 722-731Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (279) Google Scholar Japanese investigators reported a 4-year survival rate of 78% in resected stage 1 ductal adenocarcinomas <2 cm in size. Furthermore, 42% of these small, early stage cancers were not associated with symptoms.4Furukawa H. Okada S. Saisho H. et al.Clinicopathologic features of small pancreatic adenocarcinoma a collective study.Cancer. 1996; 78: 986-990Crossref PubMed Scopus (109) Google Scholar These findings suggest that screening and early detection of pancreatic neoplasia might improve the dismal outcome of pancreatic cancer. It is clear that some infiltrating pancreatic carcinomas arise from morphologically well-defined, noninvasive precursor lesions, including intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms (IPMNs) and pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN).5Maitra A. Fukushima N. Takaori K. et al.Precursors to invasive pancreatic cancer.Adv Anat Pathol. 2005; 12: 81-91Crossref PubMed Scopus (222) Google Scholar On the basis of extensive experience in other organs, it is reasonable to expect that treating these precursor lesions will prevent their progression to invasive cancer.6O’Shaughnessy J.A. Kelloff G.J. Gordon G.B. et al.Treatment and prevention of intraepithelial neoplasia an important target for accelerated new agent development.Clin Cancer Res. 2002; 8: 314-346PubMed Google Scholar Screening for invasive pancreatic cancer and its precursors is currently not feasible in the general population because of the relatively low incidence of this malignancy and the lack of accurate, inexpensive, and noninvasive diagnostic tests for early disease. However, targeted screening of high-risk individuals could potentially detect curable pancreatic neoplasms. Patients with inherited pancreatic cancer syndromes and individuals with a strong family history of pancreatic cancer have an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. Peutz-Jeghers syndrome (PJS) is an autosomal dominant polyposis syndrome caused by an inherited germline mutation of the STK-11/LKB1 tumor suppressor gene.7Gruber S.B. Entius M.M. Petersen G.M. et al.Pathogenesis of adenocarcinoma in Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.Cancer Res. 1998; 58: 5267-5270PubMed Google Scholar Patients with PJS have a significantly increased risk of both gastrointestinal and non-gastrointestinal cancers, with an estimated cumulative lifetime risk for pancreatic cancer of 36%.8Giardiello F.M. Brensinger J.D. Tersmette A.C. et al.Very high risk of cancer in familial Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.Gastroenterology. 2000; 119: 1447-1453Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1033) Google Scholar Case-control,9Ghadirian P. Boyle P. Simard A. et al.Reported family aggregation of pancreatic cancer within a population- based case-control study in the Francophone community in Montreal, Canada.Int J Pancreatol. 1991; 10: 183-196PubMed Google Scholar registry-based,10Klein A.P. Brune K.A. Petersen G.M. et al.Prospective risk of pancreatic cancer in familial pancreatic cancer kindreds.Cancer Res. 2004; 64: 2634-2638Crossref PubMed Scopus (489) Google Scholar, 11Rulyak S.J. Lowenfels A.B. Maisonneuve P. et al.Risk factors for the development of pancreatic cancer in familial pancreatic cancer kindreds.Gastroenterology. 2003; 124: 1292-1299Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (163) Google Scholar, 12Tersmette A.C. Petersen G.M. Offerhaus G.J. et al.Increased risk of incident pancreatic cancer among first-degree relatives of patients with familial pancreatic cancer.Clin Cancer Res. 2001; 7: 738-744PubMed Google Scholar, 13Amundadottir L.T. Thorvaldsson S. Gudbjartsson D.F. et al.Cancer as a complex phenotype pattern of cancer distribution within and beyond the nuclear family.PLoS Med. 2004; 1: e65Crossref PubMed Scopus (227) Google Scholar and population-based14Bartsch D.K. Kress R. Sina-Frey M. et al.Prevalence of familial pancreatic cancer in Germany.Int J Cancer. 2004; 110: 902-906Crossref PubMed Scopus (73) Google Scholar studies have also shown that at-risk relatives of patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma have an increased risk for pancreatic cancer. The number of affected relatives appears to influence the magnitude of risk. First-degree relatives of patients with pancreatic cancer have a 2.3-fold increased risk of developing the disease,13Amundadottir L.T. Thorvaldsson S. Gudbjartsson D.F. et al.Cancer as a complex phenotype pattern of cancer distribution within and beyond the nuclear family.PLoS Med. 2004; 1: e65Crossref PubMed Scopus (227) Google Scholar individuals with 2 affected first-degree relatives have a 6.4-fold increase in risk, and those with 3 or more affected first-degree relatives have an estimated 32-fold increased risk.10Klein A.P. Brune K.A. Petersen G.M. et al.Prospective risk of pancreatic cancer in familial pancreatic cancer kindreds.Cancer Res. 2004; 64: 2634-2638Crossref PubMed Scopus (489) Google Scholar In a previously reported pilot study, we found that endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) –based screening can detect significant pancreatic neoplasms in individuals with a strong family history of pancreatic cancer or with PJS.15Canto M.I. Goggins M. Yeo C.J. et al.Screening for pancreatic neoplasia in high-risk individuals an EUS-based approach.Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2004; 2: 606-621Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (367) Google Scholar We also noted an increased prevalence of chronic pancreatitis-like EUS abnormalities in these high-risk individuals. In the current study, we screened for early pancreatic neoplasia in a larger sample of high-risk patients by using both EUS and computed tomography (CT). We defined early pancreatic neoplasia as a small (<2 cm), localized pancreatic cancer or its known precursors, including IPMN16Longnecker D.S. Observations on the etiology and pathogenesis of intraductal papillary-mucinous neoplasms of the pancreas.Hepatogastroenterology. 1998; 45: 1973-1980PubMed Google Scholar, 17Sohn T.A. Yeo C.J. Cameron J.L. et al.Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasms of the pancreas an updated experience.Ann Surg. 2004; 239: 788-799Crossref PubMed Scopus (761) Google Scholar and PanIN.18Hruban R.H. Adsay N.V. Albores-Saavedra J. et al.Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia a new nomenclature and classification system for pancreatic duct lesions.Am J Surg Pathol. 2001; 25: 579-586Crossref PubMed Scopus (945) Google Scholar We also sought to compare the prevalence of EUS and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) pancreatic abnormalities in high-risk individuals and control patients. A prospective, controlled study was conducted in a tertiary care medical center ( Johns Hopkins Hospital) on outpatients from 2001–2004. Patients were accrued during a period of 2 years and followed for a minimum of 1 year. Two high-risk groups were studied, patients with PJS (group 1) and at-risk relatives of patients with pancreatic cancer from familial pancreatic cancer kindreds (group 2). Familial pancreatic cancer was defined as ductal adenocarcinoma affecting at least 2 first-degree relatives or associated with a known inherited genetic syndrome. Eligible subjects were either referred by their physician or genetic counselor or invited by letter to participate through Johns Hopkins Hereditary Colorectal Tumor Registry or the National Familial Pancreas Tumor Registry (NFPTR).19Hruban R.H. Petersen G.M. Goggins M. et al.Familial pancreatic cancer.Ann Oncol. 1999; 10: 69-73Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (114) Google Scholar High-risk patients were eligible for screening if they could provide informed consent to participate in this study, had no clinical evidence or personal history of pancreatic cancer, and met the following study inclusion criteria: (1) PJS patients had to be at least 30 years old and had to have at least 2 of 3 criteria for PJS (characteristic intestinal hamartomatous polyps, mucocutaneous melanin deposition, and family history of PJS)8Giardiello F.M. Brensinger J.D. Tersmette A.C. et al.Very high risk of cancer in familial Peutz-Jeghers syndrome.Gastroenterology. 2000; 119: 1447-1453Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (1033) Google Scholar; (2) individuals from familial pancreatic cancer kindreds (families with at least 2 affected first-degree relatives) had to be at least ≥40 years old or 10 years younger than the age of youngest relative with pancreatic cancer, and from a kindred with 3 or more affected family members (one of whom must have been a first-degree relative to the screened individual). Subjects who were not already enrolled in the NFPTR were referred for enrollment to allow confirmation of the cancer diagnoses, construction of the pedigree, and confirmation of eligibility. The NFPTR attempts to confirm all cancer diagnoses in the family by review of medical records, death certificates, and/or pathology slides. Consecutive patients undergoing EUS and/or ERCP for non-pancreatic indications at the Johns Hopkins Hospital endoscopy unit were also concurrently enrolled as control patients. To be eligible, control subjects must have been at least 30 years old, with no personal or family history of pancreatic cancer, no clinical or radiologic suspicion of pancreatic disease, and no symptoms referable to the pancreas. We excluded high-risk and normal control subjects if they had any of the following: (1) medical comorbidities or coagulopathy that contraindicated endoscopy; (2) Karnofsky performance status of <60; (3) a suspicion or diagnosis of pancreatic cancer, acute or chronic pancreatitis, or pancreatic lesion by prior imaging studies; (4) partial or complete resection of their pancreas; (5) gastrectomy with Billroth or Roux-en-Y anastomosis; or (6) stricture or obstruction in the upper gastrointestinal tract that did not allow passage of the echoendoscope. All high-risk subjects had a baseline screening evaluation and at least 1 follow-up clinical and radiologic evaluation (EUS and CT) within 1 year. The baseline outpatient evaluation included a clinic visit with the gastroenterologist and genetic counseling team (J.A., C.G.). The gastroenterologist discussed the study procedures, risks, and benefits and obtained written informed consent with the Johns Hopkins Institutional Review Board–approved consent form. A comprehensive family history and personal medical history questionnaire was administered. A detailed clinical history and physical examination were performed. An intravenous line was inserted into the patient, and blood was drawn for the specimen bank. Patients underwent CT scanning and EUS at the Johns Hopkins Hospital as detailed below. The genetic counselors obtained a detailed family history from each subject and determined whether any inherited syndromes such as hereditary pancreatitis, PJS, familial atypical multiple mole and melanoma syndrome, hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, or familial breast and ovarian cancer syndrome might explain the clustering of pancreatic cancer in the family. On the basis of the family histories, selected patients were counseled on genetic testing, particularly if an inherited BRCA2 mutation was suspected, because of the implications for breast and ovarian cancer risk and screening. The genetic counselors also reviewed current knowledge of the genetics of pancreatic cancer with each subject. The genetic counselors summarized the results of the meeting in a letter that was sent to the subject after the screening visit. EUS was performed by a single experienced endosonographer (M.C.) with a radial-scanning (Olympus UM-130 or UM-160; Olympus America, Melville, NY) and linear echoendoscope (Olympus GF-UCT1409-AL5; Olympus Corporation, Inc) after intravenous conscious sedation or general anesthesia. The echoendoscope was advanced to the distal descending duodenum and withdrawn gradually while imaging continuously at 5 and 7.5 MHz with water-filled balloon technique. The EUS was performed without knowledge of the CT scan results. The pancreas was examined for presence and size of focal lesions such as a mass (hypoechoic round to oval-shaped lesion ≥1 cm in size), nodule (circumscribed, round to oval-shaped lesion <1 cm in diameter without associated posterior acoustic enhancement), or cyst (thin-walled, anechoic lesion >2 mm, without color flow or Doppler signal, with posterior acoustic enhancement). Lesions such as nodules or masses were measured in 2 dimensions and described according to shape, border, echogenicity, heterogeneity, and location. The pancreatic parenchyma and duct were also assessed for changes of chronic pancreatitis by using standard EUS criteria.20Catalano M.F. Lahoti S. Geenen J.E. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography, and secretin test in the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 11-17Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar, 23Hollerbach S. Klamann A. Topalidis T. et al.Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) and fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Endoscopy. 2001; 33: 824-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar All parenchymal changes were categorized as focal (with location) or diffuse. The pancreatic parenchyma was also assessed for calcification, lobularity,20Catalano M.F. Lahoti S. Geenen J.E. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography, and secretin test in the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 11-17Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar and the presence of echogenic foci20Catalano M.F. Lahoti S. Geenen J.E. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography, and secretin test in the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 11-17Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar and echogenic strands.20Catalano M.F. Lahoti S. Geenen J.E. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography, and secretin test in the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 11-17Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar The main pancreatic duct diameter was measured in the head, body (at level of the portal vein–superior mesenteric vein confluence), and tail. In addition, the pancreatic ductal system was assessed for ductal dilation, visible side branches, echogenic ductal walls, irregularity of the main duct, and intraductal calcification. The endosonographer evaluated 9 EUS features that have been associated with chronic pancreatitis (echogenic foci, echogenic strands, lobularity, main ductal dilation, visible side branches, echogenic duct walls, duct irregularity, cysts, and stones).21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar Chronic pancreatitis was rated as “absent to equivocal” if there were <3 of 9 features21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar present, and chronic pancreatitis was rated as “present” if ≥3 of 9 features were present. This approach is associated with an accuracy of 85% or greater for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis when using ERCP as the reference standard.21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar The overall EUS grade of chronic pancreatitis was also assessed by using a previously reported classification, which uses the type of parenchymal and ductal EUS features of chronic pancreatitis rather than the number.23Hollerbach S. Klamann A. Topalidis T. et al.Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) and fine-needle aspiration (FNA) cytology for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Endoscopy. 2001; 33: 824-831Crossref PubMed Scopus (119) Google Scholar The normal pancreas has a homogeneous echotexture with a thin and anechoic main pancreatic duct.20Catalano M.F. Lahoti S. Geenen J.E. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography, endoscopic retrograde pancreatography, and secretin test in the diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 11-17Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (275) Google Scholar, 21Sahai A.V. Zimmerman M. Aabakken L. et al.Prospective assessment of the ability of endoscopic ultrasound to diagnose, exclude, or establish the severity of chronic pancreatitis found by endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography.Gastrointest Endosc. 1998; 48: 18-25Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF PubMed Scopus (278) Google Scholar, 22Wiersema M.J. Hawes R.H. Lehman G.A. et al.Prospective evaluation of endoscopic ultrasonography and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in patients with chronic abdominal pain of suspected pancreatic origin.Endoscopy. 1993; 25: 555-564Crossref PubMed Scopus (307) Google Scholar If the EUS was abnormal (ie, focal lesion such as mass, nodule, or cyst or at least 3 of 9 EUS features of chronic pancreatitis present), EUS-guided fine-needle aspiration (FNA) was performed at the same procedure by using an electronic video curved linear array echoendoscope (Olympus GF-UCT1409-AL5; Olympus Corporation, Inc) and a 22-gauge ultrasound aspiration needle (Wilson-Cook, Winston-Salem, NC; GIP Mediglobe, Tempe, AZ). Aspirates were first obtained from pancreatic lesions, and then the pancreatic parenchyma was systematically sampled for the specimen bank as part of ongoing collaborative translational studies on novel biomarkers for pancreatic neoplasia. Pancreatic fine-needle aspirates were assessed by an on-site cytopathologist and technician and routinely processed. Aspirates were also independently assessed by an experienced cytopathologist (S.Z.A.) unaware of the clinical and radiologic findings. High-risk individuals with abnormal EUS also underwent dual phase, multi-detector, spiral CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis with the standard protocol for pancreatic imaging at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Patients were given 1000 mL of water 15–20 minutes before the study and injected with 120 mL of Omnipaque-350 at an injection rate of 3 mL/s. CT scans were performed on a Siemens Volume Zoom, 16-detector multi-slice scanner (Siemens Medical Solutions USA, Inc, Malvern, PA) by using 1-mm collimation with 1.25-mm slice thickness reconstructed at 1-mm intervals. All studies were reviewed with 3-dimensional volume rendering supplemented with maximum intensity projection. CT scans were interpreted by an experienced CT radiologist (E.F.) who was unaware of the EUS or ERCP findings. All high-risk subjects with an abnormal EUS were offered ERCP. ERCP was usually scheduled on a separate visit from the EUS. A single experienced endoscopist (A.K.) performed ERCP by using a videoduodenoscope (JF-140, JF-160; Olympus America) and fluoroscopy. The pancreatic duct was selectively cannulated with a triple lumen wire-guided catheter and a glidewire, and, if necessary, a small amount of contrast was injected to verify the location of the position in the pancreatic duct. The pancreatic ductal system was opacified with full-strength contrast with careful injection and magnification of fluoroscopic images to fill the primary and secondary ducts completely. The presence of saccules (saccular or grape-like deformities of the pancreatic ducts24Brentnall T.A. Bronner M.P. Byrd D.R. et al.Early diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic dysplasia in patients with a family history of pancreatic cancer.Ann Intern Med. 1999; 131: 247-255Crossref PubMed Scopus (318) Google Scholar) and grade of chronic pancreatitis were assessed by using the Cambridge classification.25Axon A.T. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography in chronic pancreatitis Cambridge classification.Radiol Clin North Am. 1989; 27: 39-50PubMed Google Scholar Chronic pancreatitis-like changes of the ducts were classified as absent, mild (more than 3 dilated side branches with normal main duct), moderate (abnormal main duct and side branches), or severe (large cavity, ductal stone or filling defect, duct obstruction or stricture, gross irregularity). Other duodenal, ampullary, and pancreatic ductal abnormalities such as extrusion of mucin, pancreas divisum, and communicating cysts were noted. Patients who were suspected of having a pancreatic neoplasm because of a mass, cystic lesion, or nodule detected on imaging studies or because of severe dysplasia in their EUS-guided pancreatic fine-needle aspirates were referred to an experienced pancreatic surgeon (C.J.Y.). The risk and benefits of surgical treatment as well as the alternative option of close follow-up and repeat imaging and cytologic sampling were also discussed with the patient and family. Patients proceeding with surgery had a subtotal pancreatectomy (either pylorus-sparing Whipple procedure or distal pancreatectomy with or without splenectomy), depending on the distribution of lesions or abnormalities in preoperative imaging tests. All patients were called by telephone within 7 days after EUS and ERCP to assess for post-procedure complications. High-risk subjects with an abnormal EUS who did not have surgery were offered follow-up EUS/FNA and CT scan within 3–6 months to assess the stability of the abnormalities. All patients were offered repeat EUS within 1 year from the baseline evaluation. Pancreatic surgical specimens were assessed for neoplastic lesions by an experienced pathologist (R.H.H.) with expertise in pancreatic pathology. IPMNs were defined as neoplasms with tall, columnar, mucin-containing epithelium with or without papillary proliferations and extensively involving the main pancreatic ducts or major side branches. The IPMNs were also classified into main d